American Exceptionalism Research Paper

With the start of war in Iraq and a series of terrorist attacks, the issue of American exceptionalism became one of major public issues discussed. This concept is not just a general idea, but, on the contrary, a sort of philosophy that prevails in American nation. It has deep historical roots, and one can trace its origin and development, major influences and characteristics, and contradictions. On the one hand, such values as freedom and equality are given the highest priority. However, being proud of these constitutional foundations, many US citizens consider their way of life to be superior to that of the other nations and actively strive to share it, which often does not logically coincides with equality and freedom. 

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According to the definition, American exceptionalism can be described as an idea that the United States and American people take special place in the world being the country of opportunities and hope as a result of unprecedented balance of individual and public interests that are governed by constitutional ideals which emphasize personal and economic freedom (Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. American Exceptionalism). It is widely held that the term took its origin from the famous work of Alexis de Tocqueville Democracy in America and meant “qualitatively different from all other countries” (American Exceptionalism). The interpretation of this concept also depends on the perspective from which it is studied: some people describe American exceptionalism as a moral superiority, while others believe that this is an ideal of societal norms and standards.  Recently, however, this term is often referred to as public propaganda that aims to justify chauvinistic American-centered view (Lockhart, Charles.).

Among all the facets of American exceptionalism, the most neutral is the historian view that holds that the United States of America are unique in terms of their origin and development without any moral implications. Historians rather provide explanation for why North America succeeded in political and economic arena. The stages of development of exceptionalism can be traced from colonial period up to present time when America became a separate independent nation. First, the concept of exceptionalism was widely popularized and replaced the idea of “Manifest Destiny” that was used to describe the unstoppable destruction of Native Americans (Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. American Exceptionalism). The idea of uniqueness dates back to 1630, when John Winthrop made his famous remark to his fellow Puritans that they would found a “city upon a hill” and never experience the corrupt practices that they had left behind in the Old Europe (American Exceptionalism). Thus, America was perceived as a place free from tyranny and obtrusive regimes and symbolized the start of new life. 

Afterwards, since the 19th century, exceptionalism was used in the context of liquidation of slavery as a victory over tyranny, which was the result of a free of choice of Americans. Researchers point out several important factors contributed to the formation of American nation and its philosophy. First of all, it is the availability of a vast pool of resources, which were so scarce in Europe by that time. The view of America as the land of freedom and opportunities can be ascribed to the fact that the first settlers that populated North America were often desperate seekers of a new destiny and better life and the major incentive for their risky relocation was primarily land and the possibility of realization of their own values and ideas (Deborah L. Madsen). North America was called a “New World” and attracted those who disagreed with the rules of the Old World. The views regarding society, wealth, liberties, government, and God were reevaluated to create a better place for living than the Old Europe.

After The War of Independence and American Revolution, these ideals were manifested in the works of intellectuals of American Revolution, especially Thomas Paine. In his famous work “Common Sense”, Paine defined America as not merely an extension of Europe, but as a separate, fundamentally different country offering unlimited potential and opportunities (American Exceptionalism). It is also impossible to omit the major subject of American proud, which is the Declaration Independence stating that “all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness” (The Declaration of Independence of the Thirteen Colonies). By that time, this document was one of the most progressive and democratic among the countries of the Old World and imparted the notion of exceptionalism to the perceptions of US inhabitants. As G. K. Chesterton noticed: “America is the only nation in the world that is founded on a creed. That creed is set forth with dogmatic and even theological lucidity in the Declaration of Independence. . .” (Lockhart, Charles.).

Tocqueville, in his turn, identified five values of this creed that played a crucial role in the development of American democracy: 1) liberty, 2) egalitarianism, 3) individualism, 4) populism, and 5) laissez-faire.  These principles have played a leading role in developing democracy and preventing such regime as monarchy and aristocratic structures (Deborah L. Madsen). The replacement of the peasants’ class by an indentured servant class and the extensive classification of society by functions following Industrial revolution fostered the development of middle class. The culmination of freedom was manifested in the activated Trade Unions movement, which extended the rights of working class and demonstrated the practical reality that labor can control their destiny (Deborah L. Madsen). 

However, as was noted before, the concept of exceptionalism changed over time. While during the period of America’s out post colonial position America was considered to be the symbol of opportunity and welcoming, with the gaining of wealth and political weight, the borders were closed for many immigrants for the reasons of their origin and race, and practical considerations. At that point exceptionalism meant power and protectionism (Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. American Exceptionalism). In the contemporary context, however, American exceptionalism is referred to as the values and principles found in the symbolism of welcoming and opportunities of the past that can be seen in present policies and ideologies neglecting any differences between past and present, which creates the grounds for paradoxes and controversies. The proponents of exceptionalism tend to maintain a positive view of the past, present, and future, which is an essential element of social doctrine and propaganda (Byron, E. Shafer).  Many agree that exceptionalism lacks facts and logical arguments, and for this reason many researchers tend to classify it as collective idealism, or common cultural myth.

Interestingly, the term “American exceptionalism” did not appear until the WWII. It was introduced in the course of American Studies that appeared since the WWII era (Byron, E. Shafer). Horwitz pointed out that “For most of the history of ‘American Studies, most Americanists, like most non-academics, have assumed that most senses of the word “America” actually do or ought to converge. They suppose that the U.S. terrain, its government, and the ways of life of its people comprise a single, even if conflicted, whole - a “culture” - that is distinguishable from the contributions of annexed territories, populations, and polities.” It is in this sense, then, that “America is supposed to be unique” (American Exceptionalism). Evidently, this idea was highly promoted among general public to develop a greater sense of national identity and even nationalism as a major motivating factor to fight. Here one can trace a tendency of governments to develop the will to fight through public propaganda of America’s superiority to the Japanese. It is known that during the war time the Japanese people were referred to as “monkeys” to popularize hatred and American superiority (Siobhan McEvoy-Levy.). In addition, the propaganda of American exceptionalism was in work to oppose the power the communism-oriented Soviet Union during the era of Cold War. Afterwards, nevertheless, the focus of American Studies was shifted to culture, which was designed with the purpose of finding a consensus by means of integrating theories on US history and art, semiotics and psychological areas and showing that all people have some features that are the same and that even compatriots can be different (Siobhan McEvoy-Levy.).

In addition, it is worth mentioning that many consider American exceptionalism a two-way sword – a term developed by Seymour Martin Lipset. In his writings, he outlines “American values are quite complex, particularly because of paradoxes within our culture that permit pernicious and beneficial social phenomena to arise simultaneously from the same basic beliefs” (Seymour Martin Lipset). The positive side of this concept lies in the fact that the United States of America are perceived as being the most democratic and free society that is open to the people who are the most progressive and the most competent. This is the implications of the country’s immigration policy. The traditions of individualism, private property, work ethic and education ethic founded by Puritans fostered the development of capitalism, and thus, are responsible for the nation’s commonwealth accumulated over the years (Seymour Martin Lipset). On the other hand, exceptionalism is quite controversial in terms that it promotes hatred, brutality, and even violence, as manifested in the Iraq. Elliot Gorn argues that “increasingly, Americans are a people without history, with only memory, which means a people poorly prepared for what is inevitable about life - tragedy, sadness, moral ambiguity - and therefore a people reluctant to engage difficult ethical issues” (Elliot Gorn).

It is illustrative that striving to prevent the shifting balance of powers, the administration Bush started a war against Iraq in August 2002. What was really surprising is that the facts and analysis on costs, reasons, and long-term implication were presented neither to the congress no to the world community. The only reason provided was the toppling of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein accused of possessing the weapons of mass destruction. Bush has also declared that the war is also against terrorism having given, thus, a way for American aggression triggered by the events of 9/11 (Marks, Gary and Seymour Martin Lipset). Thus, using democratic principles as a cover up, America is invading Iraq. His reelection signifies that the majority of Americans support the course taken, which can be interpreted as a manifestation of continued hatred and violence for the attacks that took place several years ago.

Many might argue that the United States of America act like many other countries in the past and present time. However, this makes one doubt that contemporary America is exceptional. From the historical point of view, many events, which were ignored as contradicting the principles of freedom and equality, signify the opposite. First of all, the early settlers are responsible for genocide of the Native American populations and taking possession of their lands. Later, in need for labor force, which was in deficit at those times, thousands of people from Africa were captured and brought to America to be later enslaved in plantations (Marks, Gary and Seymour Martin Lipset). A series factors such as annexation by force of the Hawaiian Islands, the emergence of MacCarthyism, and political actions of 20th and 21st century represent serious contradictions with the notion of exceptionalism. Moreover, the external politics of the USA becomes also doubtful as some facts appear on th esurface. For illustration, many analysts consider that the meeting of Kissinger and Ford with the President of Indonesia Suharto triggered East Timor’s invasion that resulted in a murder of 200,000 Timorese (Siobhan McEvoy-Levy.).

Therefore, many scholars reject the concept of American exceptionalism as an implication of American national character. Instead, it is held that the present commonwealth of the USA can be attributed to distrinct factors such as the geographic position of the country (its borders, growing internal market), historical events (no engagement in warfares), and abundant natural resources (Siobhan McEvoy-Levy.). The advantage gained can not last indefinitely, and the tendencies indicate that the power is shifting to Middle East, which can partially explain the start of war in Iraq. Thus, the concept of American exceptionalism is controversial in terms that it is not based on historical events and logical arguments, but rather a culture created to emphasize American superiority and promote nationalism.

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Essay on Greed

Essay on Greed is Good?

In the 1987 Oliver Stone film Wall Street, Michael Douglas (playing the fictional Gordon Gekko) delivered a particularly concise formulation of what many people, in retrospect, thought was wrong with that whole decade. “Greed is good,” he proclaimed (echoing a real-life speech by Ivan Boesky, a few years before).

This vulgarization of Adam Smith’s model of free enterprise, in which self-interest had a carefully contained and nuanced meaning, had long been familiar. The doctrine of the “invisible hand” (converting acts of individual greed into the blessing of universal prosperity) had worked its way deep into the American ideology, and, accordingly, there was nothing too extreme or too good to be said about greed.

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But, what is greed? Why has it been considered a vice and a sin throughout most of human history? Why do we still use the word greedy not as a term of praise but as a criticism, a put-down, a condemnation? Plato referred to pleonexia , a serious vice that might best be understood as grasping . There is a fine line between idealism and ambition, which one might describe as “reaching,” and avarice and greed, which are something quite different.

“Grasping” has a sense of desperation about it, something unseemly, the unmistakable suggestion of “too much.” And that is what greed is, “too much.” In the film Key Largo, Edward G. Robinson discovers in a word what he has always wanted, what drives his vicious criminal career: “more!” he says with gleeful enthusiasm, “that’s it, more!!”

“Greed is good” is a contradiction. Greed is by definition not good. But that, of course, doesn’t answer the question: What is wrong with greed? Greed (avarice) is an excess. It is like gluttony, an embarrassment, and the explanation “I wanted more” does not serve as an excuse but rather confirms the unbridled vulgarity.

Given our characterization of business as irreducibly social and necessarily involved with mutual interests and concerns, the supposed place of greed in business mentality is surely embarrassing in itself. And yet, the idea that greed is basic to business has been firmly established, if not by its practitioners, then certainly by its critics.

How odd, then, that we so often celebrate and reward greed as “ambition” and “drive.” Greed is not vision. It is a lack of vision. Let us see it for what it is, an extreme form of selfishness, an oblivion to all virtues, and neglect or contempt for any good but one’s own.

Abstract greed is a falsification of what drives people, but there is an analog that is no less abstract but much more insidious in the corporate context. It is what business theorists in the twentieth century have often called the profit motive. Never mind that the phrase was invented by nineteenth-century socialists as an attack on business and its narrow-minded pursuit of the dollar, the mark, and the yen to the exclusion of all other considerations and obligations. The idea is that the natural desire for profit drives the free enterprise system (and so, too, each one of us).

A more sophisticated version of the myth of the profit motive avoids the extravagant generalizations regarding human nature, interpreting the motive more modestly as a matter of contractual obligation, not natural necessity. “The social responsibility of business,” writes Milton Friedman in a famous polemical article, “is to increase profits.” (1)

He does not include the word only, but it is clearly implied. Friedman argues that the managers of a company have a fiduciary responsibility to the owners (in a publicly held company, the stockholders), which is certainly true. But notice that Friedman’s argument, although it is headlined in terms of profits, is in fact concerned with the notion of responsibility, not a profit concept at all. Managers and executives may make profits, but not (as such) for themselves.

Such talk of the profit motive causes more damage than any amount of sleaziness or dishonest dealings on the part of the business community. It is the narrow-minded language of the profit motive that gives rise to public suspicion.

Peter Drucker, in his magnum opus Management, writes of managers that “it is their own rhetoric that is one of the main reasons for hostility. . . . There is only the profit motive, but why that desire should be indulged in by society any more than bigamy, for instance, is never explained.” (2)

“Profit” is an economist’s term. It is not merely an increase in wealth, and it is not what one earns when one works for a living. You’ll never get rich working for a living. Profit is, technically, what is “left over” after all costs have been paid. In practice, profits are often what the board or the boss says that they are.

But profits are neither “natural” nor a motive. Anthony Flew, defending profits but attacking the idea of a “profit motive,” rightly asks whether we should also talk about a “wage motive,” a “rent motive,” and an “interest motive.” (3) This little reduction ad absurdum quickly demolishes its target.

Of course, people work for profits in a profit-making system. But profits are a means to an end -- for a corporation, survival, for an individual, money to spend. Profits get distributed and reinvested. Profits are a means to building the business and rewarding employees, executives, and investors.

The profit motive is often attacked as a form of selfishness. Once again Flew makes the point rather nicely. He carefully distinguishes pursuing one’s interest from selfishness, taking as an example his daughters eating their dinners: “It would be monstrous to denounce them as selfish hussies, simply on that account.” Flew adds, “the time for denunciation could come only after one of them had, for instance, eaten someone else’s dinner too.” (4)

Who is supposed to have this so-called profit motive? Employees don’t have it: They have a salary to earn and a job to do. Managers don’t have it: They have obligations and responsibilities. Top executives, too, work for salaries and bonuses. They work for profits only insofar as they are also shareholders in the company. It is only the investors, the “owners,” who do not “work for” profits, and if anyone has the profit motive, presumably they do. It is on their behalf, according to this myth, that the entire system functions.

But stockholders are not homines economici, that is, merely economic self-maximizing beings. They are people with values and virtues who presumably care about something more in life than how their shares are doing. To be sure, they do hope and often expect to make a profit. And that means that the businesses themselves have to make a profit.

In Peter Drucker’s startling turn of phrase: “If archangels instead of businessmen sat in directors’ chairs, they would still have to be concerned with profitability, despite their total lack of personal interests in making profits.” (5) 

But businesses and businesspeople make a profit only by supplying quality goods and services, by providing jobs, by supplying capital and taking risks, and by fitting into the community. Norman Bowie has argued that profits, like happiness, are most easily obtained when not pursued as such. If you want to be happy, you need to pursue not happiness but other goals. So, too, “the more a business consciously seeks to obtain profits, the less likely they are to achieve them.” Bowie aptly calls this “the profit-seeking paradox.” (6) One might think of it as a conceptual antidote to the mythical profit motive.

Gordon Gekko said his “Greed is good” speech mostly with reference to the managerial waste of the shareholders’ money. He mentions the fact that the CEO and upper level managers receive huge salaries and numerous bonuses: all this comes out of a shareholders’ pockets. For Gekko, ‘greed’ is the ability to control the unnecessary spending of upper level managers in order to help shareholders retain their real profits.

Gekko’s position does promote greater social good: it is actually based on the principle of utilitarianism that could be described as ‘the greatest good for the greatest number’. Instead of having upper level managers of huge corporations share extraordinary benefits and tremendous salaries, Gekko suggests that those money are used to gratify those who were responsible for founding the corporation – its shareholders.

Therefore, ‘greed’ in Gekko’s mouth is not bad, but actually good. He wants shareholders have what they deserve to have; certainly, such an attitude will not be tolerated by the managers he refers to, and he will have to struggle for the greater social good that he strives to achieve. The “greed is good’ speech is one of the most moving moments in the film, and I believe that gecko is completely right in what he says.

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SAT and ACT Essay

In general both SAT and ACT are the sets of tests aiming to check up the results after the first year in college and to get a common yardstick to use in comparing students from different academic backgrounds.  Having same role in the admission process these two tests differ in their background and their structure.

 Traditionally the SAT was taken in the colleges of the Northeast, East and the West coasts. The ACTs were taken in the schools and colleges of the mid-west. But ACT tests became more widespread some time ago and most colleges accept both test results now. It’s considered that the SAT tests are preferred in private schools and some colleges and ACTs are usually taken in public schools and most of the colleges. But there are exceptions and the system can be different for every state, and for each school or college.

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The ACT is based more on the school curriculum while the SAT relies on the common knowledge in different subjects. The questions in the SAT tests can be tricky sometimes and contain variants, which can distract your attention. The ACTs are more straight forward and they usually don’t have these tricky questions. In most of the states the SATs are taken seven times per year and the ACTs are taken six times. To take the SAT test you should register at least six weeks before the test and for the ACT you can register at least one month before the test.

These tests have same goal, but they are quite different in their structure. The ACT is traditionally described as a content-based test, which specifies the accurate answers on the concrete questions.  At the same time SAT is commonly regarded as a test, which needs critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. It’s considered to require more creative abilities also. In fact this division is not quite correct as a lot of tasks in the ACT tests also demand critical thinking or problem solving and there are many tasks in the SAT which are based on the content. But still, these tests rely on different abilities and it is good that most of the student can choose the type of the test they prefer to show better results and their abilities.

There are several points that differ these tests.  The SAT test consists of verbal, math and experimental sections. And the ACT test consists of English, math, reading, science reasoning and experimental sections. The SAT contains questions on both – algebra and geometry and ACT has only four questions on trigonometry and the rest is algebra. The ACT includes a science reasoning test, while the SAT does not. The SAT tests require better vocabulary than the ACT, and ACT, on the other side, emphasizes grammar.

In the SAT questions are placed in the order of difficulty level and I think it helps to concentrate on the test when you pass from the easier tasks to more difficult ones. In ACT the questions don’t have any order of difficulty and it can distract attention sometimes when simple things seem difficult and vice versa. But ACT tests perform the score choice which gives you the opportunity to choose the level most appropriate for you and SAT doesn’t provide this choice. The SAT has penalty for the wrong answers, which can be a distracter sometimes and the ACT doesn’t.

The ACT tests are more straightforward and can benefit students who don’t like tests. But at the same time, the limitation in time is very serious challenge for students who don’t like to work under the pressure and need more time for thinking that the rest of students.

Nowadays, there is a tendency to add SAT II Subject Tests to SAT I Reasoning Tests which means that you may be asked to take up to three SAT II test in addition to SAT I. That would take much more time and effort than the ACT test. There is only one ACT test without additional tests and variations.  But it’s obligatory that you will be asked to take additional SAT II tests as there are a lot of schools and colleges which are satisfied with SAT I results only.  And there are also a number of colleges, which would require you to take SAT II in addition to the ACT tests.

 For students who are faced with the choice of the test it’s better to choose in advance the college they are going to apply to and then focus on the type of test, which is required in this very college. One should also keep in mind his strong and week points to choose the test which is more appropriate for his way of thinking and his abilities. Taking both tests and comparing their results would be a very nice move to take in order to find out which test is giving you the most flattering results. Of course, good test results cannot be achieved without careful preparation. The student should know the structure and style of the tests, and be prepared to pass them successfully.

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Career Services Essay

Essay on Career Services

Successful career is one of the most highly appreciated achievements in life. It implies status, money, security and respect of other people. Whichever occupation you choose in life, it will, most probably, influence your future in many ways. So if you really care about your life it is time to look for a descent job!

Most of you will say: “Oh! It is so hard to find a good job nowadays! Either the place doesn’t fit our requirements, or we are not qualified enough to get it”. The latter is not a problem at all if you are a part of the “Career services” project. The University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, among other Student Services, provides Career Services, which include employment counselling services in various spheres. It has a lot of useful information for students, alumni and employers. It is a kind of mediator between you and your future boss.

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A lot of my friends had problems with employment. One of them, Jane, panicked the very second she heard the word “interview”, but after several unsuccessful efforts, she finally decided to take part in an interview workshop, provided by the Career Services Department at USP. There she learned the basic principles of interview communication, several useful tips on the dress code and gestures and postures. Moreover, she had an opportunity to be an interviewer in an “Interview” role-play. She said that after she imagined herself in the role of the future boss, asking tricky questions and making others tremble, she felt much more confident. Her experience helped her pass the real-life interview successfully because she was prepared to all the “unexpected” questions. 

The Career Services Department will help you to learn various job search strategies, develop your personal resume & cover letter, which are essential parts of the employment process, if you have already found a desired vacancy, or even provide job and internship listings information, if you are still searching. The Career Service Department also will provide essential tips for successful interviews, and an opportunity to discuss questionable matters with a professional career counsellor.

As I have already mentioned, The Career Services Department provides special workshops designed to facilitate the processes of interview, negotiation, and career planning. It will help you to answer the most important question: "What can I do with my major?" and will provide all the needed information on this point. Numerous career planning tools, as well as local, regional, national and even international job postings will be at your disposal, when you will sign up for Career Services at USP. Simply imagine how easy your life would become – all your career problems will be solved with the help of professionals. And you will have access to the on-line job listings and updates, forget about buying newspapers!

Being a member of the Career Services Department, you will be able to know more of the University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, its community, the world of work and much more. For example, this February, the students in the Career Service workshops will discuss appropriate looks for what to wear to the Spring Career Fair (which is held annually), job interviews and other professional networking events. The Career Service department has also introduced a new, online Career Fair, which will facilitate the searching process – your resumes and up-to-date job listings will be available 24x7.

By the way, this March workshop program includes numerous interesting events, and if you sign up, you will get to know how to write a professional resume, watch or even take part in “dress for success” fashion show, and learn some useful things on dinner etiquette and negotiation techniques. If you want to succeed in your career, and want others to respect and admire your skills and knowledge, you will certainly not miss these events!

USP Career Services resources for students are also available to Alumni and International Students. Do not hesitate to use Career services that were founded to help you to create and develop a successful career in your future life. They will make your life easier.

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French Revolution Research Paper

The nobles and Church were controlling everything. Society was divided into three estates, the first estate was the Church, the second estates were the nobles, and the third estate was everyone else. The third estate was comprised of bankers, traders, businessmen, and everyone else. They were mainly comprised of the middle class or bourgeoisie. This class tried to gain political power, as they grew wealthier.

When Louis XVI came to power France was a mess because of the 15th and 16th centuries economic instability. Louis hired a finance minister, Turgot, to balance the budget. He was dismissed after about two years because of France's unwillingness to cooperate. In 1789 the monarch became bankrupt.

In order to rectify this situation Louis called a meeting with the Estates General or medieval representative assembly of the three estates. The first and second estates voted together. This made the third estate mad so they formed the National Assembly.
  

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Louis mobilized his troops to surround Paris because he was scared by the third estate's size. This advice came form his bother and wife, Count Artois and Marie Antoinette. The three estates decided to come together as one unit or the National Constituent Assembly. The Tennis Court Oath was when the National Constituent Assembly took an oath and said they would not disband until a constitution was formed. National Constituent Assembly issued the Declaration of The Rights of Man and the Citizen. This was a document based on the Enlightenment's idea of civil liberties.

The National Guard is what the troops of shopkeepers called themselves when they invaded the political prison where some weapons were stored, or Bastille. This sparks the revolution.

The National Guard then appoints Lafayette as the leader of their battle. He also, begins the cockade. This was a symbol of resistance. When the women got enraged because of high bread prices and marched to the king's palace, Versailles, and dragged him back to Paris it was known as the Women's March.

The National Constituent Assembly wrote the Constitution of 1791, it forbidded workers to organize and instituted Assignats. It also, secularized the Catholic Church with the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, where farmland was used as collateral and turned France into a farming country. This Constitution is made unchangeable for ten years and everyone agrees not to seek reelection. The new members were divided into the left liberals and the right conservatives. The artisans were unsatisfied with this constitution.

The emigres, nobles who fled the country during mob times, threatened France. The Declaration of Pilznit was where Prussia and Austria agreed to invade France and restore the king if the rest of Europe agrees.

The Legislative Assembly of 91-92 was led by the Girondists and declared war on Austria. The Girondists accused the king and queen of sympathizing with the enemy. The sans-culottes, or wage-earning people, went to the Council of Paris and asked if they could rule. They formed the Paris Commune and replaced the government of Paris. The Prussian Duke of Brunswick supported the emigres and demanded the revolutionaries lay down their arms in the Brunswick Manifesto. The Paris Commune went on a killing spree known as the September Massacres. They executed all nobles or sympathizers.

On September 21st the Legislative Assembly created the National Convention, yet another attempt to write a constitution. The Jacobins and sans-culottes dominated it. They were known as "The Mountain" because of their high placement in the assembly hall. Maximillian Robes Pierre called for an execution of the king. The other European nations got frightened and formed a coalition to defeat the revolutionaries, but were distracted by their efforts to partition Poland.

Robes Pierre convinced the mob to turn on the moderate Girondists. In January 1793 the revolutionaries executed Louis XVI as Citizen Capet, because no titles were used now. The Jacobins dictatorship expanded. They lead the executive committee of the Assembly, Committee of Public Safety. It started revolution tribunals that tried and arrested "enemies of the state". The Law of 22 Prarial was passed, it said you only need accusation to execute someone as an "enemy of the state". This was the beginning of the Reign of Terror.

The Assembly begins levee en masse , a system that requires everyone in France to serve in the army in someway. This was an army bulk up movement. Robes Pierre renames France the "Republic of Virtue" and tries to convince people that war is virtuous. He begins the dechristianization of France and strips Notre Dam and names it the Temple of Reason. He institutes The Cult of Pure Reason where the concept of reason was worshipped. To get more people interested he renames the cult The Cult of the Supreme Being.

The Thermidorian Reaction was the reaction of the French to the excesses of the revolution. The White Terror began when the conservatives killed people for being too revolutionary. The Bands of Jesus beat up revolutionaries. The Jacobin Club was forced to close and the Girondists took their seats back in the National Government. Catholicism remained under state control but people were allowed to attend services. The Constitution of Year III or 1795 made the Legislature bicameral. The executive branch called the Directory had five members chosen by the Council of Elder from a list approved by the Council of 500.

In 1795 the French army had a huge success and Prussia, Netherlands, and Spain withdrew from the war. In 1796 Napoleon beat Sardinia. In 1796 Napoleon beat Austria. The Directory began a partnership with Napoleon in order to expand their power but it backfired because they could not control him.

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Research Paper on Golda Meir

The state of Israel has had many great leaders that had helped it to survive around the Arabs and to become a state the 14th of may 1948. One of these great leaders was Golda Meir, the fourth prime minister of Israel and labor Zionist leader and diplomat. Her real name is Golda Mabovitch. She was born in Kiev, Ukraine in 1898. When she was eight years old, her family immigrated to the United States of America. She grew up in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. There she joined a Zionist youth movement. Then she got married with Morris Myerson, and, in 1921, they moved to Palestine, joining a Kibbutz called Merhavia.

Kibbutz its like a small town where families join and work in something specific to sell it to other kibbutzim or cities so they can maintain its own. They have a school and all the children are raised together. The main idea of the kibbutz is that everybody has the same, there is no difference between rich and poor, or levels of importance in each kibbutz. In 1924 the Meyersons moved to Jerusalem, Israel. Golda joined the Histadrut (General Federation of labor) and became a member. By the next three decades she was a great and a very active member of the Histadrut. She started in trade union and welfare programs. Then she organized the Zionist labor. "Zionist" means the believe of the Jews to have a Jewish state in Israel. She also was in charge of the funds that were received form other countries. She also obtained important political roles. In these years the British government prohibited the immigration of Jews and restricted it to just a few per year. This was written on the White book. So she advanced the immigration of unrestricted Jews. By 1946, the majority of the community senior leaders were interned by the British authorities. She replaced Moshe Sharett by acting as the leader of the political department of the Jewish Agency or "Keren Hayesod" until the establishment of the Jewish state.

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After the creation of the State she played a part in the internal labor Zionist politics and in diplomatic efforts to achieve peace.

In June of 1948 Golda Meir was Israel's first ambassador to the Soviet Union, she only stayed in this position for less than a year. She was later elected as a member of the Knesset (Israeli Parliament) in the 1949 elections and served as minister of labor and national insurance from 1949 to 1956. In these years there was a lot of unemployment caused by mass immigration. So she provided housing for immigrants and integrated them to workforce.

During 1956 to 1966 she served as minister of foreign affairs and initiated Israeli's policy of cooperation with the newly independent nations of Africa, that continues in these years. At the same time she established relations with the United States and ties with Latin American countries.

After the death ofPrime Minister Levi Eshkol in 1969, she was chosen to succeed him. In 1969 elections she led her party to victory.

Shortly after these the War of Attrition ended in a cease-fire agreement with Egypt. But this agreement was broken by Egypt when they send the missiles on the Suez canal front. Even though it did bring a three-year period of peace, that stopped in October 1973 by the Yom Kippur War.

As a primer minister she focused much of her energies on the diplomatic front. She mixed up personal diplomacy with skillful use of mass media. She was naturally armed with and iron will a warm personality and a grandmotherly image. And with this characteristics she solicited financial and military aid in unprecedented measure.

She showed a strong leadership during the surprise attack of Yom Kippur securing an American airlift of arms while standing firm of disengagement of forces negotiations and fast returns of POW's. Even though the Agranat Commission of Inquiry exonerated her from direct responsibility form Israel's unprepared ness for the war, and she had led her party to the victory in 1973 elections. Golda Meir believed in what she said "the will of the people" and resigned in the middle of 1974. She retired form public life and start writing her memories.but was present in the Knesset to greet Egyptian President Anwar Sadat on his historic visit to Jerusalem in November 1977.

Golda Meir is considered one of the most hard working and energetic women in the history of the world. She is recognized by helping the Israeli state to survive and with all these hard work, she also had time for her family. This both things together make Golda one of the most admired women through history. Other characteristic about this amazing women is that she never left a job unfinished, even though it was a simple labor or something more difficult like creating a Jewish state. Since Golda Meir was a child, she set herself a dream. She wanted a Jewish country there, she wanted a state where Jews could have citizenship and in 1948 she achieved her dream. But this didn't fell from the sky, she worked hard, really hard all of her life to make this dream real. This is an example of the perseverance and the guts that a woman can have on difficult situations.

After Israel became a estate, everybody thought that the conflicts would stop, but unfortunately this did not happen; and after all of these years, 55 to be more exact, Israel has been in constant wars and attacks with its Arabs neighbors. Without the support of Golda and other strong Israeli leaders this could not be possible. It is truly difficult to a country to be in constant attacks with other countries, considering the economic lost that a single war gives. It is really amazing to count the years that Israel has been in war, and to realize that all of its neighbors are Arabs. It is the only state with a different culture and religion if this region. (The middle east).

In its first years, Israel was a very poor country, considering that people who lived there came from World War II. They came form the holocaust; from loosing their loved ones and everything they had got. And the wealthy people form Israel helped this families, and started cleaning the country. Israel is located in a very arid zone, with plenty of marshes and deserts. So it was a priority cleaning everything to start a productive country. Because of all of these reasons, Israel in the beginning had a lack on weapons and a very poor army. Golda Meir knew she could not win a war or maintain a country like this, so she decided to do something.

She decided to travel to the United Stated and other countries to obtain some money. She gave speeches and conferences to universities and she contacted the American head governments trying to borrow some money. The government of the United States turned her down and did not gave her money, but the college students gave Golda the money they obtained. And also, the American government did not agree to sell weapons to Israel, and again the college students tried to send some to Israel.

This is an example of what a woman can make if she believes in something and works hard to achieve it, this proves how the sex does not matter when you have high expectative and lots of energy and demonstrates how everything is possible if you work hard for it. Golda Meir died in December 1978, at the age of 80.

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