Research Paper on Coffee

Throughout the past four weeks, we have been examining the labor conditions involved in harvesting coffee. Having never studied this subject, I was shocked by what these laborers endure. Since its discovery, coffee has had a huge impact on cultures throughout the world. Many countries, especially Brazil, immediately adopted coffee as an important crop once it was introduced to them. Although this crop brought prosperity to many of these nations, it also brought massive amounts of slaves in order to harvest it all. Eventually, slavery was abolished, and a new class of people emerged who worked the fields and lived in extreme poverty. These laborers still live in these same conditions today. This extreme poverty is a result of the fact that many migrant workers come to the country because where they came from conditions were much worse. Compared to the United States, these migrant workers have an awful life. This drastic difference shows how much more diverse and advanced the United States’ economy is, and how Brazil must change its economic and immigration policies.

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In order to understand this difference in the situations of migrant workers, we must first focus on what these economies are based. Let us look at a large coffee producing, South American country. According to the documentary, Coffee: a Sackful of Power, Brazil developed its economy based on coffee. In the early 1600’s, Brazil monopolized on the coffee product by using slave labor to harvest the massive amounts of crops. The result of this focus on coffee was that the entire economy was based nearly completely on one product. Once slavery was abolished, Brazil suddenly found itself with millions of unemployed ex slaves. Brazil lost massive amounts of revenue because now they had to pay laborers to harvest the coffee crop. In order to solve this problem, Brazil began importing cheap foreign labor in order to drive the wages down. This act created a problem because many native Brazilians were and still are forced to work for much lower wages than if there were no immigrants. Because these laborers work form day to day, they cannot obtain any skills; therefore they are stricken to this life of poverty (Valenti). If all of the workers have only this one skill there is no specialization; therefore, the owners can control the prices for a job since laborers have no other options for jobs. Not only is there only one main job for laborers, but also there are constantly migrant workers coming to the country, making it harder for people to get jobs. Also, the increase in population drives the wages down because demand for jobs increases, allowing the owners to set wages at a lower price. This unique situation has forced the migrant workers into horrible living conditions where most of them are forced to live on the plantations with the plantation owners (Dicum and Luttinger 44). After examining this economy we shall see how it drastically differs from that of the United States.

The United States is rather unique compared to the other countries in the world. We are the land of opportunity where anyone can make it. Our economy is probably the most diverse in the world. When it was first founded, America was mainly a place used for its raw materials. The economy was based around various crops which were harvested, refined and shipped to large, wealthy countries. Over many years, the United States became a nation that used raw materials in order to create its own refine products. Today, the U.S. has become so diverse in its economy it can almost control prices on foreign goods. Because there is so much diversity in the economy, there are many job opportunities for migrant workers. Business is growing at such a high rate, these migrant workers from the U.S. are actually in demand; therefore, these migrant workers live in much better conditions than those from Brazil. Due to the nature and diversity of the U.S. economy it differs largely from that of Brazil.

Although we know now that there is a massive difference in the general economies of these two countries today, if we look back at when America had just been discovered, there are many similarities in the two economies. Both of these countries relied on cash crops and cheap labor. In order to make conditions better for migrant workers, Brazil must put better restrictions on immigration and begin to focus on helping its own citizens, much like the U.S. This way, more jobs will open up to the natives and wages will slowly rise. Today, Brazil continues to export the raw material, coffee, to countries like the U.S. According to the documentary Coffee: A Sackful of Power, the U.S. is related to Brazil due to the fact that the coffee prices are actually regulated by our market (Avanti). This fact says a whole lot about the general economies of both of our nations because it is actually our country that controls how much these migrant workers make. If were not so concentrated on coffee as a main source for the economy, then we would not be able to control the prices of coffee. If Brazil could control their own prices then the migrant workers would not have to live in such poor conditions.

If they ever want to become a truly successful country, Brazil must further diversify its economy and impose stricter immigration laws. As of right now, countries like the U.S. control the prices of the coffee product, yet they do not grow it. We think that people making five dollars an hour in the United States are living in poverty, but there are people in Brazil who make literally just enough to live from day to day. If Brazil does not do something for its citizens, it will only hurt the country in the long run because their cheap labor drives the price so low it allows the U.S. to basically control their prices. Finally, if laborers continue to live in these conditions, they will lose all faith in the government and there are many problems that could result form there such as a civil war.

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Essay on United Nations Organisation

Some individuals believe that the United Nations must intervene in civil wars and internal ethnic conflicts that occur within nations. Other individuals believe that the United Nations should not interfere under any circumstances. To find the best answer to this we must take many factors into consideration such as, human rights, and past experiences in history. While examining the United Nations efforts to stop human rights violations and civil wars, as well as provide humanitarian aid the answer is made clear. In order to maintain international security the United Nations must intervene into civil or national conflicts by any extent necessary.

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While living in a country such as Canada it is easy for us to overlook the human right violations taking place in other countries. While some people may argue that a countries problems must be left for them to dispute and resolve amongst themselves, they are unfortunately leaving the innocent civilians vulnerable to human rights violations. Therefore it is a god sent to many people that organizations like the United Nations have been implemented to secure their rights. In creating the Declaration of Human rights and Independence the United Nations set 30 articles of all peoples inherent rights on earth. For example, article 25 states “ Everyone has the right to a standard of living,” It may sound very simplistic but without the United Nations to ensure these rights many people are refused of them. Without the UN to ensure civil ones civil rights we can infer that many people in Central America in the 1980’s would have suffered greatly. When the UN recognized the human right violations taking place in El Salvador and Guatemala City they immediately took action to peacefully restore rights to the people. The people who argue that the United Nations should leave other countries alone should examine Rwanda. While this country was undergoing a civil war the United Nations failed to take firm actions. This was due mostly to the opinion of President Clinton of the United States. In turn the results were devastating. Many more lives were lost than necessary. In order to insure international security the United Nations must take prompt affirmative action against Human rights violations worldwide.

Due to the various civil wars and results that have occurred after world war two many different opinions are held regarding the United Nations involvement. While most of the aggressors would prefer the argument to be left amongst the two immediate countries the civilians would prefer for the dispute to be resolved peacefully through the United Nations. In 1999 the people of East Timor voted to begin a process of independence from West Timor. Initially this action resulted in a civil war between East and West Timor. The United Nations was prompt to help peacefully resolve the issue at hand and many lives were saved. Unlike many previous civil wars that lasted decades the war between East and West Timor was kept short and this saved many lives. Instead of lasting over decades the Timorese were able to resolve their problems promptly under the guidance of the United Nations. East Timor became an independent country only three years after the conflict had initially began. It was the prompt and peaceful measures insured by the United Nations that insured the best results for the People of East and West Timor as well as the international community.

When evaluating the issue of humanitarian aid to countries in need the opinions held may be on opposite ends of the spectrum. Some people feel that if people are in need of aid or assistance that they are lazy or unwilling to earn it. This is not the case. Unfortunately it is hard for many people to understand the needs of a person who has endured a natural disaster and lost everything until they have endured it themselves or been penetrated by it on a more personal level. This greedy and close-minded opinion leads to the deaths of many innocent people due to ignorance. Without humanitarian aid provided by the United Nations many innocent people would be left to suffer the horrible aftermath of of great tragedies. Fortunately this is not the case. Due to funding the United Nations is able to provide for clothing and shelter to those in need after natural disasters occur. In 1999 alone the United Nations were able to provide assistance to almost thirty million people worldwide. Some people argue that providing aid to those hurt by war is actually prolonging the war. Yet this is not true because in the long run any United Nations involvement will help to shorten the war and in turn save lives. During the civil war in Somalia in previous decades the United Nations has saved many lives by sending aid to those in need. In involving themselves in internal affairs of nations and providing humanitarian aid the United Nations was able save many innocent lives and end disputed more quickly.

History proves that the United Nations involvement in civil wars and ethnic conflicts has been beneficial in maintaining international security. By intervening in disputed the United Nations has been able to end the Cuban missile crisis in the sixty’s, help get Soviet troops out of Afghanistan and end many civil wars in countries such as El Salvador, East and West Timor and Guatemala. The United Nations involvement has proven to be beneficial to not only the humans involved in the conflict but to humans in general. In order to maintain international collective security the United Nations involvement must be prevalent to the greatest extent possible.

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Research Paper on Uncle Tom's Cabin

Chapter 1- This book sort of opens with two men talking about slave trade. I don't understand why people have the nerve to talk about trading people like they were baseball cards. When slaves were traded, families were broken up, and I would be miserable if I couldn't be with my family.

Chapter 2- In this chapter, a slave named George invented a machine for cleaning hemp. Instead of his master being proud of him, his master says "let a nigger alone....and they'll invent labor-saving machines." I don't like the way that they say the word nigger. It's really offensive, but I guess that is how it was back then.

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Chapter 3- This is the chapter that George tells Eliza, his wife, that he has decided to try to escape to Canada. He says that his master has worked him too hard for too long. He says to look out for their son Harry. Harry is male, and when fate strikes, it will pierce through Eliza's soul.

Chapter 4- This chapter introduces Uncle Tom. I think that Unlce Tom and his wife sound like nice people. It explains how George Shelby, the master's son, is teaching Tom to read and write. I think that it is sad how we take for granted that we go to school and can actually read and write. Blacks hardly ever knew how to do these things.

Chapter 5- Tom is sold along with little Harry. I don't know how people can sell other people because no one owns any one else. I don't know why the blacks just didn't over power the whites and take control of everything. That would have been my plan.

Chapter 6- Eliza escapes with her son and husband. I would be so thankful because I know that my mother would do something like that for me if I were in that situation. She is such a great women and I love her so much!

Chatper 7- While running away, Eliza cannot eat because she is in so much fear. I think that if I was on the run, and if I got caught and would be killed, I would not eat either. It's all too much to take in, in my opinion.

Chapter 8- There is ice in the river that they need to cross. Eliza is lost on what to do. She goes to the house of a kindly housewife. I am so glad that I have great friend that I too could go to in hard times.

Chapter 9- Eliza is about to cross a river. When she gets to the other side, there is a man there. He takes her to a house that is old and abandoned and there he gives both she and her son food, money, and clothes! What a great guy!

Chapter 10-16 Uncle Tom gets caught trying to escape. He is whipped until he can't move anymore. George, Eliza's husband, is trying to make an escape. He get's to a tavern in disguise. He fools everyone, but then reveals himself. He then says "I will fight for my liberty with my last breath." Meanwhile, Haley is going crazy buying slaves. I feel really sorry for all the slaves before the Civil War. I would hate to live a life like that! I would just be so awful. I am so thankful that I don't have to. Eliza is still in the company of friends, which brings to mind the underground railroad. I bet that there had to be a lot of trust in the Underground RailRoad, because of all of the people hiding the slaves. But, I am guessing that people were dishonest and told where the slaves were. You have to learn who you can trust.

Chapter 17-19 Slave hunters are still trying to track down Eliza, George, and little Harry. So, they decide to move in the night. I think that that would be a very good idea because it's not as easy to see people in the night, especially when you don't have technology like flashlights and things. Mrs. Ophelia buys her a little girl so that the girl won't have to belong to a cruel master. That is total service right there. Doing something for someone like saving their life is priceless, and they will be rewarded for it if they haven't already.

Chapter 20-26 Her new slave girl is everything that she could have imagined. She loves the girl like her own. She is a beautiful dark girl with glittering eyes, and sparkling teeth. When Mrs. Ophelia decides to give Topsy, the slave, a bath, she notices the giant welts and clloused spots all over the girls body. Mrs. Ophelia decides to teach Topsy all that she can. She has Topsy confess all of her sins, when in reality, Topsy has none. I wish that I was as good and pure as Topsy as to have little or no sins. That would be really nice indeed. Topsy is a bery good maid. She does everything with perfection and elegance. Even though it seems to be going great, Topsy is really hurt and says to Ophelia "Nobody can love niggers." She is very hurt and upset by this, but I would be also.

Chapters 27-34 Eva dies and her husband St Clare is deeply hurt. I remember when my grandma that I was really close to died. It was like a part of me died with her. Me and my grandma were very close, but not even ask close as a husband and a wife. It was unbelievable to bare for St. Clare. Tom tells St. Clare about Christ. He get's him to pray, and he immediately becomes closer to Eva. St. Clare offers Tom his freedom, but Tom does not go. He wants to fully convert St. Clare and insure Christian happiness for him. St. Clare is worried about sending Tom away. My cousin just left on a mission last night, and I was worried about him going, but you just have to know that they are in the right place at the right time doing the things that they know they should be doing, so, I told him goodbye. Ophelia tells Clare that Tom will be extremely cared for in the North. Later on, Clare is stabbed, and he calls upon Tom to pray for him. He dies. When that happens, Tom is the sold to a man named Mr. Legree. Mr. Legree will not let Tom even speak of God on his plantation. Tom tries to help the slaves on the plantation. He tries to help a lady but then is roughly flogged for it. I would hate to bet beaten. It is probably the worst thing in the world.

Chapter 35-40 Legree is nothing but a loser drunk man that will never give up an sort of drink if he life was on the line. He is afraid of Cassey, a woman slave. Since is feared to harm her, he hurts a helpless Tom instead. There has never been someone more helpful to Tom then the woman named Cassey. She is something. I remember the day that I met my best friend. It was a whlie ago, but we have been the best of friends ever since. She is a really big example in my life and I love her a lot. She means the world to me, and if I lost her, it would be the end of the world as I know it. I also feel that way about my mom and dad and brother and sister and aunt and uncle and cousins. All the important people in my life are really important and I do NOT want to lose them at the least bit. I love them all.

Chapter 41-44 Tom is about to give up. He as tried everything from forming an escape party to trying to kill himself. His master now says that "Tom is trying to die, the troublemaker." It's too bad that people have to lose hope like that. No matter what happens in this life, we should never lose hope. Uncle Tom finally dies. He is then burried on a sandy knoll. All of Tom's friends have found freedom, it's too bad that Tom could not be there with them.

Chapter 45- This is the ending chapter, just giving hope and faith to those slaves that have none. She states that she has only given "a faint shadow, a dim picture, of the anguish and despair that are at this very moment, riving thousands of hearts, shattering thousands of families, and driving a helpless and sesnitive race to frenzy and despair. She says that people who have slaves will be held accountable before God.

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Essay on Racism in America

According to Longman's Dictionary of American English, it defines racism as "Political and social practices where one believes that their race is the best." Among many issues that United States are facing today, racism rank as one of the most difficult issue to face. Most racism victims in United States are African American, Chinese and Jewish. So in this research paper I want to focus on:

- What is the biggest group of racism in US? How do they think about racism?
- How African American get racism? Who are the most important people to fight against with racism, what are their ways to solve problems?
- How Chinese get racism?
- How Jewish get racism?

As the definition above has stated, racism will only happen if one person from certain race think that his/her race is superior among others. While some people have mild discrimination toward other certain races, some people or organization actually go to the extreme to define their principle, such as the Ku Klux Klan or famously called as KKK.

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Ku Klux Klan is an organization that was built on the principle that Caucasian American is the best race and that other races are inferior. They were first famous during the 1870s where they would kill people that were either other races or supporters of those races. Veterans of Confederate Army organized them. They were dressed in white robes and sheets and their motto was "Save white America". They gradually faded and arose again in 1915 and reached its peak on 1920s with 4 million members. Racial tolerance and Government attempts to stop them later lower their members to few thousands. Ku Klux Klan is one of the biggest racism terrorists group in United States.

African American
Many significant figures stand out during the history of United States to stop racism. Some stand out by speaking in public while others use form of media such as novel and movies. Among these figures that stand out by speaking in public, Martin Luther King JR and Malcolm X are probably the most famous one. Martin Luther King JR is famous for his "I have a dream" speech. Martin Luther King JR speak in public and try to persuade everybody to see that violence will solve nothing and that violence itself is root of all evils .

Malcolm X, unfortunately used violence to solve this problem. They may have different views but they have one cause. Martin Luther King JR has always believed that "good" white people is existed while Malcolm X has always believed that there is no "good" white people leading him to fight violence with violence. This statement was clear in his book titled "The Ballot or The Bullet" page 261 where he said "Usually, it's the white man who grins at you the most, and pats you on the back, and is supposed to be your friend. He may be friendly, but he's not your friend". Malcolm X would do anything to get his point across for example barricading him and his supporters. Fortunately, later in his life, Malcolm X came to realize that there are "good" white people as he stated in his book.

"I tried in every speech I made to clarify my new position regarding
white people - 'I don't speak against the sincere, well meaning, good
white people. I have learned that there are some. I have learned that
not all white people are racists" (The Ballot or The Bullet, 367).

Martin Luther King JR and Malcolm X are now remembered as the most important figures in history that paved the way for United States to reach a country where there is no racism.

Many authors also support no-racism in United States, such as author of "To Kill a Mocking Bird", Nelle Harper Lee. In this novel about racism, a black guy, a slave was wrongly accused of raping a woman that he works for. While the whole town believes he was guilty of what he was accused of, one man stood up for him and tried to free him in the court of law. During the court, many irrelevant evidences were shown and yet everybody still believes that he is guilty and ignored the valid evidences that he is innocent. The author was trying to say that black people could easily be the scapegoat for any crimes. Although in the end of the movie the black guy died in the hands of the villagers, this novel has a big impact on society because it proves that racism is still large in United States.

Chinese
Other races that have fall victims to racisms include Chinese and Jewish. Chinese were first immigrated to United States with the same reason the European came, gold and there were famine and poverty times in China. During the mid 1800s, discrimination against Chinese reached its peak. Chinese was welcomed to work with American but not to live with them ("Welcomed, but donбпt live with us; segregation is order of the day"). This was worsen with the Congress Chinese exclusion act in 1882 stating:

"Whereas, in the opinion of the government of the United
States the coming of Chinese laborers to this country endangers
the good order of certain localities within the territory thereof."

While Chinese that has families residing in United States were excluded from this act. Later, loopholes were found and the immigrants would brought false papers showing that they have families in United States. To avoid this, later in 1910, Immigration station at Angel Island was built. This station was more like a prison for the Chinese where they are interrogated and were forced to live like prisoners for weeks, months or even years. Some chose to escape their humiliation by suicide. Life for the detainees was very stressful because they would be placed in small crowded living quarters. One hundred people would sleep in one bunk bed, three high in columns in a room about 1000 square feet.The interrogation was also a frightening event. The immigrants would be asked detailed and irrelevant questions designed to trap the detainees. Many of the immigrants express their anger by writing poems about their treatment and detainment on the wall. Fortunately in 1940, this act is abolished and the immigration station has become a historic landmark until now.

Jewish
The most famous racism that has ever happened to Jewish is probably during the ruling of Adolf Hitler in Germany where many Jewish were caught and thrown into concentration camp to work. This movement were called the Nazis and stopped for a while until Neo-Nazis came out. Neo-Nazi or Neo-Fascism refers to any political or social movement founded on the ideology of Nazism or Fascism .

According to , Neo-Nazi and Neo-Fascism movement are generally racists, anti-semitic and xenophobic. Anti-semitic means when a person is hostile toward someone because they have Jewish ancestry and xenophobic means dislike toward foreigners. Neo-Nazi was formed in the 1960s and gained more followers when Germany was united. Most of their followers are teenagers from Eastern Germany. They would burn people with Jewish ancestryбпs houses or Jewishбпs houses. Unfortunately, until now, Neo-Nazi is still around and although they have fewer followers but they still remain a threat to Jewish.

From above information that I have presented, the similarities among all of them are the fact that a certain type of people believed that their races are superior to others and they would go to the extreme to make sure that their nation only populated with this certain race. While I believe that most people tend to discriminate certain races mildly some people actually go too far to prove their principle for example the Nazis and KKK.

Among all the similarities from above examples, we can conclude some differences. First of all, we can conclude that black and Jewish people got it the worst because they were actually killed and tortured. Chinese on the other hand, received bad treatments while none of them are actually murdered on purpose by anyone. Some of them chose suicides as their way of escape.

Racism can only be stopped if all human races realized that we are all equal and that colors are only skin deep. Racism can have very simple solution, unfortunately it is complicated because of how one race discriminate others will cause both of the races to discriminate each other. For example, black people were being slaved during the 1800s and because of this, white people think that black people are inferior to them. During the 1900s many white people came to realize that black people are also human being and that they should treat them the same. This might seem like a happy ending but in reality, racism didnбпt fade because by then black people had hate white people and they think that white people is their enemy because of how they were treated. Therefore, I believed that the only solution to racism is an understanding among races that everybody is equal.

In conclusion, racism is a very important issue in United States. Racism is born when a certain people or organization feel that they are superior compared to other races. There are many historic figures that try to stop racism such as Martin Luther King JR and Malcolm X. I believed that racism only could be stopped if there is understanding among races.

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Research Paper on Victorian Era

The Victorian era was one of good and bad where empires fell and rose as senseless wars were fought, people dominated, and advancements of culture and technology were made throughout. The Victorian era is called the Victorian era because England was currently being ruled over by Queen Victoria. The British Empire reached its greatest size under her reign. The greatest country she conquered was India, it was known as the jewel of the British Empire because it brought England so many natural resources, and effects of Victorian rule can still be seen today. Many other countries were colonized including Australia and other African countries, this spurred much racial hatred among England and its colonies and eventually led to the demise of the empire as wars broke out and independence was gained, although this was not always the best path for some countries.

During the Victorian era countries reached their greatest peaks because of England but they also fell in their fight against the empire to gain freedom. Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress of India and ruled over successfully throughout her reign. Queen Victoria also dealt with many rebellions throughout her time. India was seized because of the rebellion of Indian soldiers in the army as they refused to bite the end off of a bullet, a customary tradition, because the new bullets were covered with lard and it would be sacrilege, they were charged with mutiny and it gave England a reason to take over India. many rebellions took place like the chartist movement, which gave universal suffrage and new electoral reform throughout England. England also saw itself in wars overseas like the Crimean war where the only good thing that resulted was Florence Nightingale and her more humane treatment of patients and sterilization of hospitals1. England also colonized many countries throughout Africa. Their biggest problem occurred in South Africa during the Boer War. The Afrikaans settled most of South Africa and built it on the backs of tribal slaves. England then colonized South Africa and from 1899-1902 the Boer’s fought the British for ownership of the land. South Africa became England’s biggest source for gold and diamonds and to keep their claim to South Africa they had to stage one of the most expensive wars between the Napoleonic Wars and World War One. The British sent 500,000 men into South Africa to fight, easily outnumbering the Boers who only had 88,000 men. The British refused the Uitlander political rights and this caused an up rise. The war also had an economic shadow to it because most of the worlds monetary system was very dependant on gold and so the more gold the British could mine from South Africa the more the British economy grew. At the end of the war the Boers were forced to sign a treaty because they had been losing so many battles and men.

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Racism was a very big issue between citizens of England and citizens of the empire. Phrenology is the idea that that the structure of the skull, especially the jaw formation and facial angles, revealed the position of various races on the evolutionary scale. Debates concerning monogenism, one creation of mankind, or polygenism, several creations for mankind were always argued as the absurd idea of judging a person based on the shape of their face, surround racial hatred for years. The idea of phrenology came about before Darwinism.

“I am haunted by the human chimpanzees I saw [in Ireland]…I don’t believe they are our fault…. But to see white chimpanzees is dreadful; if they were black, one would not feel it so much….”

Charles Kingsley wrote about his disgust for the entire Irish people in a letter to his wife. Soon after the idea of phrenology came Darwinism, they idea that one species had evolved more than another and that these people less evolved were inferior. This was the spur of most of today’s racial hatred even though Darwin retracted all his theories upon his deathbed. Benthanism or utilitarianism was an ideology invented by Jeremy Bentham. It was the beliefs of most of the middle-class Victorians molded into a philosophy, it was used to justify the lifestyles of the people. Its basic idea was “the greatest happiness for the greatest number”. This was taken from Joseph Priestly in the late eighteenth century. The phrase means self-pleasure is the driving force for all actions by man and that this was crucial to existence and living a good life. Jerry Benthams followers were also called Philosophic Radicals. They followed a very romantic movement, as was the trend with the gothic revival. Benthams way of supporting his ideas and providing self pleasure for all was a representative legislative. He believed, that when his plan was completed parliament would be a mirror image of Benthanism. This became true when many new laws were passed that followed the structure of Benthanism. Although the idea of Benthanism was corrupt it did set up many schools and other public services in England and helped the government grow. Racial prejudice was felt all over the empire, it was directed from England to its neighbors in Ireland and all the way across the empire to India and Australia.

Toward the end of the Victorian era England saw a switchback to romanticism called the gothic revival, and it affected religion, lifestyle, and art. People begun to drift away from the church and form their own sects, especially with the abundance of new philosophies. Benthanism was probably a spur from the gothic revival. People begun to adapt to new art and architecture. Christopher Wren was an architect that added gothic design to churches, many of which can be seen today in churches like Westminster Abbey. The revival also brought about great writers such as Charles Dickens who published chapters for the newspapers and later were made into books. Dickens invented what was known as comic literature, and he “knows how human beings express themselves”. Theatre had reached an entirely new level with more realistic plays die to the increase in technology and the introduction of women to the stage whereas previously men had acted out all of the women’s roles.

The effects of colonization affected everyone in the empire. It created jobs for thousands in the mining industry but all the money went back to England making it the most prosperous and wealthiest nation in the world. Countries saw what the British were doing and decided that they wanted their freedom and wanted the wealth that was going to Britain. The problem with colonies gaining independence was that once they were granted freedom, they were cut off from Britain and therefore no longer had any money to support them or continue all the mining the British had started. This is one of many reasons that countries like India are third world. India was once an extremely wealthy country because of the spice trade. Countries from all over would pass through creating general trade and resource trade. After independence in 1947 India has been through an extremely slow progression. Some countries have survived the post independence struggle like Australia, which was once a penal colony. Aborigines originally inhabited Australia and when the first settlers came in they treated the Aborigines like scum and forced them off their land to build what is Australia today. The racial hatred spread by the effects of colonization was devastating on many different peoples.

The Victorian period also gave way to new needs of technology. In England new factories were being built as the world saw the start of the industrial revolution. With the biggest empire in the world England adopted new ideas from various cultures to blend them into the inventions that resulted because of the industrial revolution. New transportation methods came about, as sailboats were made unnecessary and steamships cut the travel time in half, the world saw an amazing acceleration in trading time. The railroad also came about in places where it was not suitable for a horse and carriage. Cecil Rhodes, an African, had a dream of completing what would have been one of the longest railroads in history. He wanted to lay a railroad track from South Africa all the way up to Egypt an unimaginable distance in his time. Unfortunately the railroad was never completed and only stretched from Zimbabwe to Zambia. The Industrial Revolution also led to some of the worst working conditions in history. Children were forced to work from three in the morning to ten at night and received fifteen minutes for breakfast, fifteen minutes for drinking, and thirty minutes for dinner. These are the working conditions as described for a ten year old girl working in a cotton mill. The Industrial Revolution brought many changes in lifestyle as well. The conditions of the average worker living in England were one of terrible and inhumane working conditions.

Workers were forced to work fifteen-hour days with limited breaks and meager wages. Factories developed a scheme that enabled them to get all their money back that they spent in wages. The factory owner would develop housing near the factories because there was no developed transportation to commute people from one city to another. The owner also owned the local grocery store where bread and vegetables were sold at almost double the regular price. Factory owners became the wealthiest people in England and new social classes emerged because of it as social standing was now based on a persons income not their name.

Sports was a major aspect of the Victorian era, with two national sports being founded there, football and rugby. “sports mirror social tensions, divisions, and values.” The Football Association was founded in 1863 and it was the governing body on professional football at the time. The Rugby Football Union was founded later in 1871 at like The Footbal Association it was the governing body for Rugby. The sports that were played were completely impartial and anyone from any class could play. It was probably the only thing that the working class got to be better at than the rich because nine years out of ten working class teams won the F.A Cup. Most of the modern clubs today originated in the 1800’s from sunday school and chapel teams. It was a social sport for the masses. In 1901 Crystal Palace stadium was filled with 111,000 sport hungry fans.

“The astonishing increase in the numbers that play and watch others play the great English games is largely due to the dull monotony of life in our large towns; it is the absolute necessity of some change, some interest outside the daily work which has long ceased to be interesting, that causes the huge crowds at the weekly football matches.

In the early days of the two sports they were purely for recreation but because people had to take time off of work to play they began losing money. In both sports players wanted compensation but only The Football Association agreed to compensate players for the time they lost when they were playing. The Rugby Football Association however were very reluctant to pay players as they said it would take away from the pure spirit of the game and until 1895 rugby players were not played which resulted in football becoming a far more popular sport.

“Since football became popular with all classes there have been less wrenching off of knockers and boxing of the watch, and fewer free fights’ in the streets.”

People were able to take the stress and aggression from the workplace and channel it into the game. It was the biggest escapism and created something for people to talk about on Monday. It created a sensible form of nationalism where people didn’t go to war except on the football pitch.

Medicine had taken no drastic turn in the Victorian era but a few simple strides created the medical world we have today. Towards the end of the Victorian Era some bacteria’s were being discovered but it was not until approximately forty years later that any cures were actually found. Traditional remedies and herbal medicines were used in place of antibiotics and most treatments were narcotics used to relieve pain. The rich began to live longer than the poor because they did not work manual labor. The profession of medicine became more and more professionalised. Although doctors with no real qualifications still practiced medicine. Medical workers trained from a professional who was already practicing. Apothecaries had to fulfill a five-year apprenticeship and this had to include six months hospital work. Paying pupils were like butlers to the doctor they read for him, filled prescriptions, and performed other errands. Physicians were like the nobles of the medical profession because they were the only doctors who had medical degrees. They would have dinner with the rich whereas an apothecary might eat dinner with the servants. Doctors were taught in schools that ninety percent of medicine involves comforting patients until “nature take it’s course”10 When a patient was wounded he usually died from infection or loss of blood. Later methods discovered cauterization but patients would usually die from shock. In the Victorian era chloroform was discovered so that the patient could be put to sleep so the amputation and cauterization could take place. Florence nightingale greatly improved nursing in hospitals after she came back from the Crimean war and her methods were adapted throughout England and the world.

Women had very little rights in this time even though the reigning monarch was a queen. Governesses played an extremely important role in a women’s life, as they are commonly the heroines in books of the time. The governess wasn’t a teacher of education but rather a social teacher. They would teach young girls how to act proper and be a good wife. One intense method of teaching strapping a backboard onto a woman’s back to teach her to stand erect. The women of this time were not treated well and men often preferred women who were ignorant and innocent. They were taught fashion and social behavior as the only people that could afford this was the aristocracy. Women were often forced into marriage to increase wealth or social standing of a family. The major problems with the demand for ignorant women was that they were not taught in the ways of the world and therefore often spent all the families money that was given to her and did not know anything about childbirth or childbearing and was forced to learn from experiences both physical and emotional. Nursing was the first professional career that opened up for women. In a time when the only decent jobs for women were kitchen maids, more and more women were trying to earn a nurses position.

In a time of Benthanism and electoral reforms it is hard to understand why an evolutionary thinker like Darwin was seen as crazy and insane because of his ideas of evolution. Only certain groups of people accepted Darwin but others were still stuck in the mindset that god created everything on earth. Darwin’s theory that life was survival of the fittest from his book, Origin of the Species, was warped into Darwinism, a platform for racial hatred and class structure. Darwinism focused on the idea that the rich white aristocrat was better than an African farmer because the aristocrat was more evolved because he had more money. Darwin became accepted later by the masses because his theories cam about in a time when people wanted a religion to suit their lifestyle and for the rich, white male Darwinism was perfect. Darwin was not afraid to reject the church and develop his own theories about existence unlike some of his predessors like Copernicus who never spoke out, because of his fear of the church.

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Essay on Technology and Society

Humans have never lead lives purely connected to nature. We have always integrated forms of technology into our daily routines to either aid in tasks or provide alternative recreational activities. Though we choose to take paths to break away from our bonds with technology, humans will never be able to sustain the advancement of the society without interacting with technology. Carolyn Guyer states that “the simple thing to realize is that there is a balance between technology and nature,” (163) but with the constant advancement and expansion of the cyber world, it is easy to lose sight of this balance and fall into a disequilibrium, and lose our connection with nature.

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Since the introduction of science fiction to the genres of the American film industry, Hollywood has pumped numerous pictures prognosticating the future. In July 2002, Steven Spielberg presented another view of the future, the eerily realistic future of Minority Report. In the year 2054, the District of Columbia still resembles the Washington DC of today, but with a closer look one can find many additions to the city that present a convincing simulacra of the future of our technologically advancing world. Instead of taking an afternoon stroll through the catwalks and overpasses of DC, we are immediately presented with a forecast: the real-time flash images of case 1108, a double homicide. Instead of easing to the main technological focus of Minority Report, Spielberg throws viewers directly into the advanced system of Pre-Crime. An advanced technological system we are to unquestionably believe, foretells murders through the precognitive minds of three humans so unfortunate to have the “gift” of seeing these murders in their minds. Through high-tech design and application, images the Precogs see are formatted into a state of the art floating screen from which John Anderton (Tom Cruise) uncovers the exact whereabouts of the murder in order to reach the destination in time to hinder the future murder.

Even without the lifeless, inanimate visual analogy to technology, the system integrating human Precogs displays an ultimate loss of human connection with nature. Lifelessly drifting in a flotation tank, cut off from civilization and only able to focus on one thing, murder, these aberrant humans not only portray the “loss of connection with nature,” but the “conversion of the real world to technology itself.” (Slouka 149) John himself presents an easier way of dealing with the existence of Precogs by stating that “it’s easier if you don’t think of them as human.” Spielberg presents a very common value of our zeitgeist centered on the degradation of human connection with nature. Well-known technologist, Jaron Lanier, observes through viewing Minority Report, that humans urge unconnected activity in synch with technological participation. Today we even air commercials encouraging our children and even other ages of humans to stay active not just for the obvious reason of staying healthy, but to also interact with nature; if not through direct nature activities, then at least through continuing existence in the natural, unwired world (3).

Though the creation of the Precogs was a horrendous accident through parental addiction of impure neroine, a new drug released years before 2054, the concept of being totally void of anything but technology alerts us to the additional “loss of connection with our inner terrain, disconnection from feeling.” (150) The assimilation of humans into technology, as shown in Minority Reportё results in not just a loss of connection with the outside world and nature, but also a loss of self. While in the tank under supervision, the Precogs do not feel pain, suffering, anger, and passion. They are void of the most definite human characteristic: emotion. Without emotion we are merely automatons existing only to continue our existence; not existing to feel and be the nature we are.

In this day and age it is apparent that many humans lose some connection with their selves as they approach a steep imbalance between technology and nature in their lives. However, just like all imbalances, it can be steadied. As Minority Report continues, one of the Precogs, Agatha (Samantha Morton), becomes part of John’s future after he steals her from the Pre-Crime headquarters. To the rest of Pre-Crime she was stolen, but to John, she was set free. His “theft” signified the release of mental and physical shackles on her mind and body, allowing her to see the world as “now” and not “will be.” Near the climax of the film, she experiences a full blow of emotions at John’s house in the room of his kidnapped son. “Only through experience will we find” a balance between technology and nature (161). Agatha tells John and his ex-wife the future of their son had he not been kidnapped when he was nine and discovers her own balance in such a warm moment of love. Minority Report continues the sense of balance all the way through the conclusion, indicating that the “only way to find and keep the balance is to keep moving.” (161) Like Agatha and the other Precogs who found their balance only after extreme experiences, humanity needs to experiment the boundaries of it’s own balance by passing into uncharted territory. Only by moving with the development of technology will we be able to find a balance.

Loss of connection with nature indirectly surfaces with the expansion of advertisements in Minority Report. Even today we see and hear advertisements that know our names and ask us unnecessary questions (134). Minority Report a simulacra of advertising through holographic screens in malls that identify every person and address them by name. For instance, in a Gap store a woman is asked whether she liked the pack of skimpy lingerie she bought last time and starts recommending other similar products available. Online stores already have the ability to identify a person and suggest products based on past purchases. Movie critic Jack Aaronson mentions that humans would prefer to keep something this personal on the down-low, maybe personally with an actual employee, but certainly not announced throughout the entire store (2). Minority Report reflects the current zeitgeist we have on advertisements and other forms of marketing by providing digitized humans who have replaced the flesh and blood of employees. With the advancement of technology comes the ever increasing annoyance and intrusion on personal life. The intrusion of marketing in Minority Report creeps its way into the homes of people who purchase cereal through the continuously animated character annoyingly dancing around on the box surface asking how the cereal tastes, but is cleverly denied by John’s furious throwing of the box that finally “kills” the advertising. Not only do we lose respect of personal space but we also lose our tempers and increased desire to rid ourselves of such menaces. However, with the proper values and limits set for marketing, such technology could prove to be fruitful additions to the entertaining side of advertising.

Visual technology does not stop with the appearances of interactive advertisements. Through advanced cameras and projectors, John is able to record and play videos of his past, before his son was kidnapped and his wife left. Through this technology John comes to see more of himself just as someone today would pop in a video of their great times in Colorado. Complex headgear and recording technology also allow John to see whatever the Precogs see, allowing him to not only see his own future killing of man he does not know, but also to replay that murder. Like any human he is “obsessively rewinding and playing again the disembodied images offered to us,” (151) hoping to find some reconciliation. John’s vengeance for his son’s kidnapper clouded his judgment of the system he blindly believed in. Through his begrudging experience, John not only realizes the human flaw of the system – the fact that images can be fabricated and planted – but also finds his own self through the blurry reflections of a fabricated future. Through visual recordings and representations we can all locate ourselves in the physical realm and ground ourselves more towards a balance with nature.

Some people may argue that there is no balance between technology and nature. If this was the case then the only path for humanity would be to drive ourselves to a completely technological world due to the unyielding halt advancements in technology. “Nature is what we are, and so cannot be opposed to, or separate from, humans and their technologies, even when we push our inventions to the point of self-destruction,” (163) says Carolyn Guyer. Technology obviously needs nature, humans, to exist. Humans also need technology to keep up in a world that will never hold back and allow us to find compensation. The world of humans and the world of technology are codependent. They are made of each other, and there is no reason why they should not be together.

Such films as Minority Report goad us to reassess the balance of technology and nature in our lives. Recognizing ourselves and finding our soul in the alien world of technology is the only hope for the safeguarding of our connection with nature. Finding the balance and holding onto it is half the job, but continuing to move on and shifting this balance is what will ensure the continuation of our existence in both worlds. By guaranteeing our connection with nature through a balance, we need not concern ourselves with the asphyxiation of a solely technological life.

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Research Paper on Divorce

Everyone has suffered an injustice at some point in their lives. We all have our stories and we all have our problems. There is a certain event that took place earlier on my life that I consider one of my life’s worst injustices. The injustice that I suffered is commonly known in our communities today as "Divorce". It happens to many families (especially in today's society) all around the world, and judging from the recent statistics I doubt that the divorce rate will decrease any time soon. To those who you do not consider divorce as an injustice, allow me to show it through the eyes of the children who have to deal with it every day lifes. Divorce is a word that many children shudder at when young and many know all too well. I am no exception. It can be very frightening and unfortunately for my siblings and I it became a reality that we had to face. For me it is one of those experiences that you never forget.

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At age eleven my parents decided that they were going to get a divorce. I never quite understood what that meant at the time. However, I just thought that mom and dad were mad at each other, and being grown ups I figured they would not let a misunderstanding get between them. Not being able to comprehend the magnitude of what was going on, I convinced myself that it would blow over in time. Soon, I came to realize that divorce meant school with mom, holidays with dad, child support, new family members, visitation rights, long trips, arguments and parents verbally bashing each other sometimes in the presence of us children. It wasn't easy accepting the fact that I was going to have a “new” dad or that I wasn't going to be able to see my real dad as much as I was use to. My older siblings took to the change rather well and they were able to adjust quickly to their new unfamiliar environment. My little sister and I on the other hand were not as eager to move and start life over again in a new place. I was at that age where I understood just enough but not enough. My little sister was pretty much unaware of what was happening at first but later I think she began to realize that she was not going to be sleeping in her usual bed for much longer. Meeting and making new friends came easy for my little sister and me. I think that had something to do with our interesting sense of humor and strange antics. My older siblings had to work much harder to fit in, I feel it was because they were at "that age" when popularity plays a major role in ones acceptance. After a while though, they were able to make some friends. The only thing that really kept me sane during the whole ordeal was my passion for writing and playing basketball. I would spend hours on end alone in my room writing all kinds of short fictions, I guess that was my way of coping with the pain. I kept to myself a lot when at home, that caused some resentment on my siblings part and thus I became the target for all their displaced anger. I never remembered them being that way when our parents where together, thus I take it that that was their way of dealing with their frustrations of what was happening. I became quite use to it though, but when it got too much, I would hit the basketball courts and released my anger and frustration out on anyone who dared to challenge me to a game of twenty one. I never really understood or realized the effects of divorce on children until just recently. Now whenever I sit down and think about what happened and how it changed everything, it makes much more sense to me.

I believe that the topic of divorce is a serious one. It affects children in ways that many people can't even imagine. If it hadn't have happened to me, I probably would have never understood just how one who has been in such a situation might feel. I am not glad that it happened to us, but it did. Divorce in a way is a kind of death, it kills your innocence and immediately forces you to grow up and deal with issues that no child should ever have to. It denies you the opportunity and experiences of family life that can be very essential for the molding of a child’s character and personality. For some, and me in particular there is always that feeling of abnormality and void.

I have always tried to find an answer for why it happened, and how my parents lost a love that was so strong in the beginning, but even after twelve years this question still remains unsolved.

It still hurts a lot more than people would think and like most children of divorce it has left my siblings and I everlasting scars. My eldest sister (25) until recently has just overcome a long and drawn out battle (as I like to call it) with her identity. Her self-esteem was completely shattered after the divorce. True, I mentioned earlier that she adapted well in the beginning, but she faced some major problems with trying to fit in. She became very self-conscious about her looks and other related problems dealing with her appearance. She never thought of herself as good enough or worth anything. Out of all of us I think is was my big brother who handled the divorce best, but even he has never been the same since. He use to be the average boy who was rambunctious, confident, liked girls and loved to play soccer. After the divorce, I found him to quite quiet, withdrawn, and slightly insecure. He is married now, and even though he does not like to admit it I know he has fears about his marriage ending up like our parents. It was my little sister who was affected most, she's been through a lot and is still going through a ton, much of which I feel is to too personal to mention. On a whole divorce has made us very skeptical about marriage, and commitment. It didn't work for our parents, why would it work for us? We grew up in two different families and homes, one family and one home will never be the norm for us.

Divorce isn't the cause of all of our problems, but it did affect our lives in a major way. Before I conclude this journal let me state that I do not blame my parents for anything that happened, it was not their fault that they could no longer live together. I just wanted to reveal through my personal experience with divorce the consequences it has on children. My parents divorce was terrible injustice and I hope that the next generation (my generation) will take marriage a bit more seriously, by really contemplating on it before they decide to run off to Vegas and do something that their children might suffer for later.

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Term Paper on Devil Tom Walker

1. Tom Walker was a meager, miserly fellow. He conspired to cheat on his wife. Tom Walker's wife was as miserly as Tom. She would hide anything she could get her hands on. She would hide the new-laid eggs from the hen since she could not hide the hen.

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2. When Tom Walker first encountered the stranger in the forest he was not afraid. He stood his ground. He asked questions to find out who the stranger was. He was bold.

3. a. Walker’s wife decides to go into the forest to drive the bargain on her own account. She wanted to keep the gain to herself.

b. When she goes into the forest, she takes the silver teapot, and spoons in her apron.

4. a. When Tom’s wife did not return, Tom got very upset because she took off with all of the family’s valuables including all the silver. But once he realized that she was not coming back, Tom became slightly thankful because he did not like his wife.

b. When Tom set out to find her, he found her heart and liver of his wife in the sack that the silver was in tied up in a tree.

5. a. Tom finally agrees to become an usurer, loaning out money, collecting bonds, and potentially bankrupting people in exchange for the money of Kidd the pirate. Other details of the agreement were never known, but they were probably that Tom would belong to the Devil.

b. As soon as Tom Walker began to regret the deal he made with the Devil, he began to go to church and carry his Bible with him all the time.

6. In the end, all of Tom Walker’s possessions disappear. His bonds and mortgages were found reduced to cinders, and his gold and silver chest was filled with chips and shaving. His horses were reduced to just skeletons and his house burned to the ground. Tom himself gets put on a black horse and was last seen riding off through town toward the swap and the old Indian fort.

9. a. Irving means when he says that Tom became a ”violent church-goer”that Tom became very active in the church, to the point of exaggeration. Tom carried a small Bible in his pocket with him at all times, and a larger one on his counting house desk.

b. Toms approach to religion is similar to the way he approaches his financial dealings because Tom became known quickly for being a person who would loan out money to those who needed it. In the same way, Tom quickly became known for his zeal of religion. The quiet Christians were astonished to see how suddenly Tom turned toward God, and some felt that he was doing better than their life long career of moving Zion ward. This is similar to his new profession as a money loaner, because at his new job, he turned his wealth around quickly and became rich.

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Research Paper on Earthquakes

Earthquakes occur throughout the world but the vast majority of them develop along narrow belts. These belts are tens to thousands of kilometres long and mark the boundaries on the Earth's surface. The belts are considered very active geological wise.

Earthquakes occur when rocks rupture under the pressure created by continuos movement and collision of thin jigsaw-like tectonic plates found under the Earth's surface.

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Seismic waves(vibrations) are then created and proceed outwards in all directions at up to 14 kilometres per second. The fastest waves would only take up to 20 minutes to reach the other side of the Earth.

The focus point is the section of Earth directly above the earthquake – also known as the epicentre. The focus point can be as deep as 700 kilometres deep.

Faulting causes a release of energy because stored up stress is unexpectedly transformed to motion causing an earthquake. The waves disfigure the rocks they pass through but once the waves have long gone the rocks return to their original shape.

Earthquakes are most common along plate boundaries which is where the tectonic plates meet.

Large earthquakes usually occur when two tectonic plates crash. About 80% of recorded earthquakes have developed at the circum-Pacific Seismic Belt which is the zone surrounding the Pacific Ocean and is characterised by frequent and strong earthquakes. It is also known as 'The Ring of Fire.'

No part of the Earth is safe from earthquakes.

Depending on the vibrations being carried reflects the arrival of seismic waves.
There are three types of waves: primary, secondary and surface.

Primary waves arrive first and distort the rocks by changing their volume. This is quickly done by expanding and then compressing them.

Secondary waves are received next and disfigure the rocks by modifying their shape.
Surface waves are received last but instead of passing through the Earth, they travel around.

The epicentre is then established by comparing the arrival time of the P an S waves, this is done on a seismograph. The larger the time differences the further the seismogram is from the epicentre.

Earthquakes are measured on the Richter Scale. This scale divides the size into categories called magnitudes. The larger the number on the scale the more damage the earthquake will cause.

The size of an earthquake is measured by comparing the maximum heights of the seismic plates recorded at a distance of 100km from the epicentre.

Predicting earthquakes is based on the lowering in grounwater levels, radon gas emission and changes in animal behaviour. Also tilts and buldge in the Earth's surface and a change in the speed of P and S waves.

The outcomes of earthquakes extend more significantly than the damage caused and the horror placed on the population. Society has come up with numerous methods to guard against the damage that is probable throughout earthquakes.

Warning systems Research and Advances in the engineering have done an incredible job in giving resources essential to surviving during earthquakes.

The way that people perceive earthquakes has a great influence on the precautionary measures that can be taken to decrease the contingency of injury, property damage and loss of life. Many people are in denial about the importance of the precautions shown therefore some of the damage that would be caused could be prevented.

There are federal warnings that there could be a possible earthquake which seems like a reasonable way to protect against the affects of the disaster. This warning system could have a great impact on the economy though.

Economic affects include adverse changes especially in the area where it happened. These changes include mortgage availability, property value, investment patterns and employment opportunities. The town at where the earthquake took place would notice a reduction in tax revenues for the local government which would then lead to a reduction in public services.

Emotional affects include psychological affects on everyone involved in the earthquake and also of those involved.

More girls than boys are affected by earthquakes. This is said to be because girls express their feelings more easily.

The major earthquake that I chose was the San Francisco.

San Francisco lies along the San Andreas Fault which is 32 kilometres deep and is the length of California in the United States.

The San Francisco earthquake started at 5:12 a.m. On the 18th of April 1906. Towering office blocks swayed, masonry crashed to the ground and windows shattered. In hotels and homes people were thrown from their beds.

Buildings and bridges collapsed, tramlines like strips of licorice, water, gas mains burst and fires spread. The aftermath 8km2 of offices, shops and houses were flattened and charred.

The death toll is not exactly know but was estimated at 700 and approximately 250, 000 people were left homeless. The damage from the earthquake and fire following was assessed at 400 million.

The fire started 2 minutes after the earthquake and lasted for three days and caused more havoc than the actual earthquake.

This was classed as a minor earthquake compared to others. Imagine the extent of the damage caused by larger earthquakes.

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Term Paper on Eleanor Roosevelt

Abigail Adams and Eleanor Roosevelt were two of the most influential and empowering women in the history of the United States. They made great contributions that helped improve the rights of all people. Their persistence and determination for a better way of life has shaped the foundation for which we live.

Abigail Adams was born on November 11, 1744 in Weymouth, Massachusetts, as Abigail Smith. When she was twenty years old she married John Adams and they moved to Braintree, MA. Abigail and John had six children, two girls and four boys. Their second daughter Susanna, died after only living a year.

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Eleanor Roosevelt was born on October 11, 1884 in New York City. She married Franklin Roosevelt on March 17, 1905. They continued to live in New York and had 6 children, two girls and four boys. One son died as an infant and this hurt Eleanor greatly.

As a young girl Abigail Adams did not go to school with the other children, partly because she was always sick and mainly because she was a girl. Instead her parents taught her at home. As soon as she could talk her mother taught her the alphabet. Her father had an extensive library and Abigail loved to read. She was one of the best-read women in the colonies.

Eleanor Roosevelt was educated in England at a small girls school outside of London called Allenswood. Eleanor loved school even though it could be strict and far from luxurious. There she joined the field hockey team and traveled in the spring. Her trips to Italy and France she said were “one of the most momentous things ever to happen to my education.” When she was eighteen she reluctantly moved home after spending three years at Allenswood.

A short time after Abigail and John Adams were married the Revolutionary war began. This meant Abigail had little time to spend with her husband. Instead while John was out going to meetings of congress, which he played a key role in, Abigail was at home taking care of the children and home all by herself.

After Eleanor’s husband Franklin won a seat in the senate the family moved to Albany. Eleanor kept busy by learning about politics, not because it interested her but because she believed a woman should be interested in what her husband was interested in. She also helped her husband by researching issues he needed to know more about, reading documents, attending speeches and committee meetings. This is what sparked her intellectual independence.

Though she was busy taking care of the home by herself Abigail found time to make her contributions. To help the war efforts Abigail would feed, house and take care of the soldiers. She would also write letters to John with input and suggestion for the congressional meetings. Many of her ideas proved to be ahead of her time such as in one letter she tells John to “remember the ladies” suggesting women’s rights. She also thought that slavery should be abolished. However, these ideas were not favored by the congressmen; rights for women and blacks would have to wait.

During World War I Eleanor got active and prepared to help in any way she could. She would knit apparel for the soldiers or find other women to volunteer by knitting. Every week she would visit injured sailors and marines in the hospitals. She also helped start the Navy Relief Society. After the war ended she joined the League of Women Voters. She was convinced to make speeches at women’s luncheons, which won her the financial chair in the league. Then in 1922 she joined the Women’s Trade Union to help women get better working conditions. The once shy woman who thought a woman’s place was to serve her husband became a Leader in New York state politics.

After the revolution Abigail and her family spent a while in England on business. They returned to a celebration in their honor. John’s popularity led him to the honor of being the first vice president of the United Stated of America and Abigail to being the “second lady.” Life as “second lady” was stressful, she was expected to entertain constantly, nurse ill family members, run a large house hold on a small budget and give John her political opinions. Then in 1797 George Washington declined running for presidency for a third term and John Adams became the President and Abigail the First Lady.

John moved first to Washington by himself and he wrote to Abigail saying “I never wanted your advice and assistance more in my life.” As first lady, Abigail made it a point to be involved and make changes. She once said “I will never consent to have our sex considered in an inferior point of light, if a woman does not hold the reins of government I see no reason for her not judging how they are conducted.” She also taught a young black boy to read and put him in school even though it outraged some people. After John Adams presidency he and Abigail moved to the family farm in Quincy, Massachusetts where she died on October 28, 1818.

In 1932 Franklin Roosevelt was elected president and Eleanor revolutionized the role of First Lady. She commences her work for the fight for women and minorities, along with antipoverty programs, and world peace. In 1934 Eleanor helped to launch the National Youth Administration, a program that helps provide jobs and training for young people. She loved the people and refused to ride in the white house limousine but instead walked and said Americans were “wonderful” and “I simply can’t imagine being afraid of going among them as I always have done, and always shall.”

During World War II Eleanor did everything she could and more to help. A short time after the war ended Franklin died and president Truman appointed Eleanor, a U.S. delegate to the United Nations and it was there that she spent much of her time and energy. She served as chair of the UN Human rights committee and co-drafted the International Declaration of Human Rights which was adopted by the UN on December 10, 1948. In 1953 President Eisenhower neglected to reappoint her to the UN so she decided to travel the world. Then in 1961 she was reappointed to the UN by president Kennedy where she served a short term until she died on November 7, 1962.

Abigail Adams and Eleanor Roosevelt were two powerful, persistent, and hard working women in history. Even through the hard times they sustained, and fought till the end. They were women’s rights advocates as well as human rights promoters. They were truly unique and beneficial and will be forever remembered.

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Research Paper on Cryptography

With the large growth of the Internet, has come an exciting promise for businesses, governments and consumers, dealing with the way that we use our computers and how we deal with sensitive information. Cryptography: defined as the study of mathematical techniques, related to aspects of information security such as confidentiality, data integrity, entity authentication, and data origin authentication (Menezes 4); is shaping the way that information is safely and securely transmitted over the Internet. The list of items that may contain sensitive information is quit large.

This list has items in it such as:
• Credit Card Information
• Social Security Numbers
• Private correspondence
• Military correspondence
• Bank account information.

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The need for a secure method to transmit information is very important in today’s world. The most secure forms of protection are known as encryption, the process of encoding information in such a way that only the person(s) who know the key, or code are able to view such information (Tyson 2). There are two main types of computer encryption. The first and least secure method is known as Symmetric Key Encryption. The second and most secure method is known as Public Key Encryption.

Both methods work using the same basic principle. Each character is designated by a random Prime number, and then is multiplied by another fixed prime number. The two computers that are talking to each other are then able to factor out the numbers by knowing the keys or the values for those prime numbers, and what they are multiplied by, in order that they may decipher the code. A simple example of this is given by Arcticsooft, who is a company that specializes in encryption languages.

For the set of all the letters in the alphabet {a.b.c.e…x.y.z}, let each letter be represented by the set of the first 26 prime numbers {2.3.5…..89.97.101}: now again assign a key value to multiply against. The key value remains the same for every letter of the alphabet and is also a prime number. The only difference between the example and a real world application is that the real world applications are going to use the numbers in binary form and the numbers will be very large such as 128 bit numbers. Using such large numbers makes it very difficult to factor out the two prime numbers, and figure out what the key is.

Symmetric Key Encryption is the least secure method of encryption due to the fact that the two keys required to factor the numbers are both public keys, Which means that both values are readily available, assuming that someone knows where to look for it. This type of information protection is generally acceptable for the mainstream population, to use with email, and other simple information transfers. Public Key Encryption is a more secure method of concealing sensitive information. This is because only one of the two keys required to compute the problem, are available to the public. The other key is private and is not shared with anyone. So even if someone knows one value and one of the keys it is still very difficult and time consuming to factor out the other values.

However cryptography is not fool proof. No one can guarantee one hundred percent security a good cryptographic system strikes the balance between what is possible and what is acceptable (Schneier 3). A major reason for this is that those assigned with the task of encryption; they must try and block every angle of attack upon their code. Whereas those people trying to break the encryption; all they have to find is one mistake, or a backdoor into the encryption. There are two different types of attacks on encryption and protocols.

“1. A passive attack is one where the adversary only monitors the communication channels. A passive attacker only threatens the confidentiality of information.
2. An active attack is one where the adversary attempts to delete, add, or in some other way alter the transmission on the channel. An active attacker threatens data integrity, and authentication as well as confidentiality.”(Menezes 41).

Strong cryptography can withstand targeted attacks until a certain degree of intensity has been reached. Even the most current algorithms created for computing these numbers are not fool proof.

The keys referred to in the above paragraphs are Hash Values. A hash value is a value that is computed from base input number and an algorithm.

Example (Tyson 4)
• Input number: 10,667
• Hashing Algorithm: Input number multiplied by 143
• Hash value: 1,525,381

As is evident by this formula it is very difficult to factor out the two numbers and get the multipliers to find the value of the input number. Public Key Encryption follows this basic principle just with much larger prime numbers. These numbers are usually upwards of 128 bit numbers, or a number with a possible value of 2^128. Example (Menezes 71)

• Inputnumber: 3,402,823,669,209,384,634,633,746,074,300,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.

Using the fastest computers in the world it would take weeks to factor out one character. That is how the information is protected. By using extremely large input values and hashing algorithms; the encryption system is made safe by its simple complexity. The algorithms are basic in theory. However with the use of such large numbers, it makes it very difficult to factor out the values without knowing either the input value or the hashing algorithm.

In conclusion, there is a great need for a secure way to transfer data and information safely over the Internet. While cryptography is not perfect, its strengths out way its weaknesses. As the amount of information sent over the World Wide Web increases so will the need for a safe and secure method of encrypting that information.

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Term Paper on Belief

In his article ‘The Ethics of Belief’ (from the book ‘Reason and Responsibility’ by Feinberg and Shafer-Landau), W.K Clifford claims that ‘it is wrong always, everywhere and for anyone to believe anything upon insufficient evidence’ (Pg 124). Clifford supports this by providing scenarios which he uses to relate the point to everyday life, making it easier for the reader to understand.

The first scenario is that of a ship owner who has a problem with an emigrant ship he owns. He doubts the ships seaworthiness but the repair costs worry him and he stifles his doubts. He convinces himself that the ship will be alright, it has after all fared him well so far although it has needed repairs done before. THIS is where Clifford sees the man as going wrong. It suits him not to get the repairs done, so he convinces himself that they are not required. The ship owner has no sound evidence to believe that the ship will not encounter problems, and he is therefore says Clifford responsible for the deaths of the people onboard when it does go down. Clifford then goes on to say that if indeed the ship had sailed and got to its destination without any problems, he STILL would have been guilty, he just would not have been found out. This is because ‘the question of right or wrong has to do with the origin of his belief not the matter of it’. Simply put, what matters is not the belief itself, but how it is acquired.

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The whole argument supports evidence as reason belief. This is a very simple yet important point. The life we live could be a lie altogether, because we believe so much without evidence. We grow up believing things we are told; we believe in a man called Father Christmas, the tooth fairy even the Easter bunny! Which may not seem much but it is a shock when we find out we have been deceived! We naturally want to avoid doubt, and find comfort and power in holding the beliefs we do, but true comfort can only come from true belief!

I think that Clifford is encouraging people to think for themselves. When you believe something, it only makes sense that you hold the belief for a reason, and that there is at least some kind of evidence supporting your belief! If we let ourselves slip into holding beliefs without evidence in cases in which we know they have no immediate consequences, this will in the future prevent us from inquiring into our beliefs. “No simplicity of mind, no obscurity of station, can escape the universal duty of questioning all that we believe” (pg 123). This quote indicates that the beliefs we hold affect other people as well as just ourselves. The simplest examples of this would be mothers teaching their children things about the world and Clifford tries to make clear the point that it doesn’t matter how trivial the belief held may be, they still affect society. This could be said especially about certain beliefs against people, such as the beliefs held by groups such as the BNP and the Nazis who prevent social integration in many communities. So it is not just politicians and people in the spotlight that hold the ‘duty of enquiry’, “every rustic who delivers in the village alehouse his slow, infrequent sentences, may help to kill or keep alive the fatal superstitions which clog his race.” (pg 123).

Clifford agrees that even if my belief is fixed, I can control my actions, and I have duties as part of the human race to act in certain ways (for example have my ship properly checked and repaired before sending it on a long voyage) even if I think or m quite sure that there is nothing wrong. It is my moral duty to MAKE SURE that there is nothing wrong. Clifford does think that the original judgement still stands: if the belief was illegitimate, if it came about without relying on good evidence- hen the person holding the view is open to much moral criticism and he or she has failed in his or her duty. This is because belief is not simply disconnected from action. To hold a belief involves having some tendency to act in certain ways. And if I hold a strong belief without evidence, it will cloud my judgement when I try to carry out my duty of investigating carefully and without prejudice.

When talking about belief, religious belief is the kind of belief that first comes to mind and affects most people. The argument is that most especially if you are religious, don’t stifle your doubts or in any way shelter yourself from any opposing points of view. “He who begins by loving Christianity better than Truth, will proceed by loving his own sect or Church better that Christianity, and end in loving himself better than all” (pg 125).

The best thing about the argument in my opinion is that Clifford is not attached to the examples he uses, he has no sympathy for those who don’t know any better, and he sees those who hold beliefs and views without investigation as ‘the life of that man is one long sin against mankind’ (Pg 124).

The consequences for religion are very clear when looking at this argument. If Clifford is right, then believing in God or a supreme deity like being WITHOUT sufficient evidence, or as holding the belief as a matter of faith as many opposers put it is simply wrong.

There is a curious feature to the argument. Clifford understands that we get many of our beliefs from society. These socially derived beliefs Clifford calls an ‘heirloom’- a sacred trust of some kind. Clearly, not all social beliefs can be investigated. We all will therefore rely on some beliefs for which we wouldn’t be able to gather all evidence. On one hand, this helps reiterate Clifford’s point that social fabric of belief IS a social trust of some description. On the other hand, however, it also makes clear that no one could follow his rules as stated. We are constantly in the position of having to believe things on no more evidence than the fact that they are widely believed.

Of course, if we really take seriously the idea that knowledge is a social product, then the rules of coming to hold beliefs might be like rather elaborate social rules. In fact, that is probably true! We treat certain experts AS experts and because they have socially recognisable credentials. It may be also, that if our society is healthy with the regard to the process of inquiry, this would generally produce reasonable beliefs. But this is still a very far cry from Clifford’s bracing slogan.

Clifford’s argument is based empirical evidence more than a priori evidence. Empiricism is basically the theory that everything can be determined from experience and that not much can be known or relied upon independently of this experience. The argument here is based on people investigating their own beliefs and experiencing the truth. I agree with Clifford in that things should be justified because without justified belief, and just believing what we are told means basically that we are living a lie.

We take things to be true, and form strong views around these views, much like the second scenario Clifford gives in his essay. The second is about a group of people who strongly believe that their children are being misled and so they instead of investigating this and going through legal methods etc to get the issue resolved, tarnish the names of the professionals (teachers etc) and publicly name and shame them. They inform the public that they are being misled and that their children are being turned against them, they make so much noise, and people are so concerned that a Commission is set up. This Commission is to find out the real facts and it turns out that this group of people were wrong and that they had accused them with insufficient evidence- they would have found the answers they needed had they delved into the matter for themselves. I think that Clifford also tries to bring out the point of rationality here as well. If the accusers had rationally thought about the situation and looked into it, the whole incident could have been avoided, however sincerely they believed they were right. “They had no right to believe on such evidence as was before them. Their sincere convictions, instead of being honestly earned by patient inquiring, were stolen by listening to the voice of prejudice and passion” (Pg 122).

In conclusion, it can be said that W.K. Clifford has written a very clear and easily understood essay, it was easily understood through the two scenarios that he gave, so that all walks of life reading his work can relate to what it is he is trying to say. I think that the point that nothing should be believed without sufficient evidence is a very good idea, but would it work in society? No. Not all people have the time or can be bothered investigating into their beliefs-“then he should have to time to believe” (Pg 125) is the answer to that, there is also the issue that what is sufficient for some may not be sufficient for others! Clifford’s claim that ‘it is wrong always, everywhere and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence’ is one which makes sense but no in my opinion practicality. It simply could never be put into practice. We as people, as human beings would lose our identity-one of the basic human instincts is trust after all and we would become a very cynical peoples, doubting and trying to make sense of everything, which simply isn’t possible because of the complexity of the world and of the human brain.

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