Issey Miyake Essay

I observe that Issey Miyake the Japanese fashion designer desires not so much to transgress boundaries in his clothing design as to maintain them as transparent walls.

An Issey Miyake design is neither wholly Eastern nor Western; his garments seem to simultaneously inhabit different temporal and geographic spaces. A piece (for Miyake’s clothing begs one to refer to them as art pieces) may look futuristic, but it is also rooted in the ancient feudal tradition of Japan’s samurai warriors.

Born in Hiroshima in 1938, Miyake was seven years old in August 1945, when his mother, suffered serious burns during U.S atomic bombing, lived another four years after the attack. The American occupation of Japan gave Miyake a first-hand view of what the west had to offer – Marilyn Monroe, Mickey Mouse, TV, Frozen Diners – and is surely a source of Miyake’s East-meets-West aesthetic.

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In 1959 Miyake enrolled as a graphic arts student at Tokyo’s prestigious Tama Art University. His true desire, however was to study fashion design, and in 1965 he went to Paris, where he studied at Ecole de la Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne, and learned the ropes under French couturiers Guy Laroche and Hubert de Givenchy.

At the Miyake design studio, a kind of laboratory the designer opened in Tokyo in 1970, he researched fabrics and design techniques, producing innovations like moulded plastic bustiers and clothes made out of oilcloth. Using a 5th century Japanese peasant technique to distress hemp like material, Miyake was able to create full bodied flowing forms that still described the body’s natural contours.

Miyake also pioneered a polyester jersey fabric, which, cut in squares and other geometric forms, enveloped the body in what he like to call a “ second skin”.

Issey Miyake continued his radical design philosophy into the 80s but his clothes became more practical. He opened the “Plantation” store in Paris in 1981, selling affordable clothes in natural fibres designed for “real living”. The pleating that has become his signature look first surfaced in the 90s. During this period Issey Miyake designed the official pleated jackets worn by the Lithuanian Olympic team at 1992 Barcelona Olympics and produced the “Pleats Please” spring and summer collection in 1994.

In Issey Miyake’s three decades in design, he has worked at the intersection of art and fashion, nature and technology, innovation and tradition and notably, East and West.

It may have been one of the fashion world’s more bizarre recent happenings. On a cold evening in Paris, several hundred people gathered on the lawn of the Cartier foundation art gallery, where they watched Chinese artist Cai Guo_Qiang sprinkle gunpowder over an assortment of dresses, trousers and t-shirts created by Issey Miyake. Cai then lit a fuse, and it all exploded like a string of firecrackers. The clothes riddled with holes and burn stains, were then put on display in the Cartier gallery along with other examples of Miyake’s collaborative efforts with artists.

In Issey Miyake’s own words “I had chosen one idea “express energy”. Cai proposed to burn a design of a dragon on my pleats please, with gunpowder. In China, the dragon is a symbol of energy, and gunpowder is energy.

I made the clothes according to how Cai was going to use them. He laid 65 items on the floor, in the shape of a dragon. Then he put gunpowder on them, covered the gunpowder with cardboard stencils also in the shape of a dragon. He lit the fuse at the end of a trail of 65 garments. In 2 or 3 seconds you could see the result, each piece of clothing has a mark of a dragon.

“ I have always considered my job as a new way of making things. Creating new fabrics or coming up with a new technique or process, going forward, looking for new possibilities.”

Issey Miyake does not tend to go back in time or history to him the weight of the fabric on the body makes the shaped. He has never used crinoline or corsets or padding to force shapes.

Issey Miyake tends to have a different expression and process, and tends to have a different way of looking at and understanding clothes. He also does not seem to be constricted by the traditional rules of French couture. He also seems not to concern himself with current trends.

He seem to be more detached from the normal concept of clothes, which allows him not to be confined by current trends and colours which so often dictate a designers collection, also allowing him to fully exploit the fabric and the design possibilities.

When asked is fashion and art? Issey Miyake replied “No I’m disturbed when people call me an artist. When I make something it’s only half finished. When people use it for years and years then its finished. The pleasure comes when people use my clothes. I may work with artists, but what I do is make things to be used, not looked at, like a picture or sculpture. You can not use art.”

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Gary's House Essay

Australian Contemporary theatre strongly focuses on dramatic forms and conventions, performance styles and themes, and how these reflect changing cultural, social, historical and political issues and interests. In Gary's House, written by Debra Oswald, the performance styles employed reflect the society of the battling under class of the 1970’s and onwards, where overcoming grief and following the individual dream was the main influence in theatre. Similarly in The Seven Stages Of Grieving, composed by Wesley Enoch and Deborah Mailman, adversity of the Australian, as well as overcoming it, is the central theme throughout the performance. “The landscape and the individual in their environment have a sense of isolation and grief; yet there is a sense of hope and future purpose”. This statement relates to both Gary’s House and The Seven Stages of Grieving, in that both plays share themes of anguish, alienation and rising above sorrow. Additionally the above statement is emphasised through the use of performance conventions and styles, whilst creating astounding dramatic impact in the plays.

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In Gary’s House issues of grief and isolation are presented through the land and the individual characters. In the opening scene, the audience is immediately given the impression of distress and seclusion, as the scene is “A building site on a remote bush block. Strewn with tools, piles of bricks and general building debris.” The scene is set in the middle of nowhere, communicating the isolation to the audience and the tools being messily around the site, reflects the characters and how their lives are a mess. The house itself is a metaphor for the characters and their relationships. As the house literally is built before the audience’s eyes, the character’s relationships too build and grow, so the audience is watching as the house physically evolves, and the characters relationships as they emotionally evolve. Just like the characters, who have all at some stage been abandoned, the house too is constantly being abandoned. In Act 2, Scene 10, Christine maliciously damages the house, ultimately creating great dramatic impact, as the audience by this point has become attached to the house, primarily because the house itself has become like a character in the play. The house being destroyed reflects how the characters are falling apart and the affliction they are experiencing, however Scene 11, possibly the most effective scene in the play, brings a sense of hope, as it shows the house at dawn, with nothing but the sounds of the bush, reflecting the environment. The contrast of the destruction of the house, with the possibility of a new day and the calming sounds of the bush, emphasises a sense of hope and future purpose, as well as creating a strong impact theatrically on the audience. Similarly a sense of hope is created through the scene immediately after Christine threatens to take the house away from Gary. Although his situation is adverse, he still continues to work on the house. The scene is in complete darkness, except for a lamplight, producing dramatic influence as well as showing that though darkness and adversity, hope is still plausible.

Another metaphor used in the performance to create dramatic effect and reflect relationships in society, is that of Christine attempting to make the screws fit into the house. When she first attempts to continue building Gary’s legacy, nothing fits and no one will help her, leaving her grief stricken and frustrated, however as the play progresses and the relationship between Christine and Dave grows, she is able to make the parts fit, leaving her with feelings of triumph and joy, further communicating, that in the occurrence of isolation and grief, a sense of hope is still possible.

The ending of Gary’s House furthermore brings a sense of hope through adversity, contrasting realism with anti-naturalism. The audience is left with a sense of peace as well as an explosion of emotions, as they watch two people who were once so full of grief, come together. Their house is complete, their lives are complete. So through the dramatic impact of the metaphor of the house as well as sounds, lighting and characterisation, it is shown that the landscape and the individual in their environment have a sense of grief, however hope is still feasible.

In The Seven Stages Of Grieving the grief of the individual and the landscape is shown, however it is through a much different context to that of Gary‘s House. In their environment the Aborigines had to battle with racism, death, and a history of violence. The Seven Stages Of Grieving reflects the changing perspective on Aborigines throughout political history through the use of performance styles and conventions such as the use of the elements and visual effects, which consequently create a strong dramatic impact on the audience. The sentence “We cry together, we laugh together and we tell our stories”, which is included in the text, communicates grief, hope and theatrical impact is created through the style of telling stories. One woman stands for all Aboriginal women and she expresses their pain. The ice used in the opening scene articulates anguish as well as creating dramatic impact, as it demonstrates how grief is a gradual process, just like ice dripping. The ice is above a grave covered in red earth to show loss through death, and the red earth connects the people to the land. Red earth was also used to symbolise the red ochre used thousands of years ago for body and rock painting, the original method of story telling.

In Sobbing the audience is automatically presented with the idea of isolation and distress through the woman’s crying alone on stage in darkness, the darkness along with the gentle sobs creates a dramatic effect on the audience, as they do not know what is about to happen, they are only left feeling for the woman on stage.

Just like in Gary’s House a repeated metaphor is used, in this case it is the suitcase full of photographs. The contents of the suitcase symbolise the past affliction and loss experienced by the woman, and it says in Photograph Story, the suitcase is comfortably out of reach, conveying its isolation. This along with the effective sound of a chair scraping on a wooden floor, communicates grief and isolation through performance conventions.

The way some of the stories are delivered also contributes to communicating the suffering of the Aborigines. Murri Gets A Dress is delivered in the style of stand up comedy to show how Aborigines weren’t taken seriously up until the late 20th century. Murri Gets A Dress also reflects how settlers had power over the Aborigines and were given the authority to shoot them at will. Mugshot is delivered purposely with no emotion, showing the callousness towards the Aborigines in the past. In Aunty Grace dramatic impact is created when the woman opens the suitcase and looks up at the audience, inviting them into her experiences. She then empties the photos from the suitcase and replaces it with earth from a grave, showing the importance of the land. In Bargaining grief experienced through loss of the dead is reflected through the symbol of the cross . This scene also reflects how in 1835 a treaty was made with the Aborigines exchanging goods for land. Dramatic impact is created through implying to the audience that a price can be put on human life and the environment. Mourning over the stolen generation is expressed in Home Story, through the woman violently destroying the piles of dirt. The audience is manipulated into trying to understand what she is explaining, then struck with the harsh realisation that the piece is about the stolen generation, thus creating dramatic impact on the audience. Through all this grief, loss and anguish however, hope is still conveyed, mostly towards the end of the performance, showing that grieving is a process, with hope being one of the final stages. When the woman releases the contents of the suitcase and images of landscape and family portraits are shown, a sense of relief and hope for the future is created, as well as a strong theatrical impact through the visual images. Furthermore a sense of hope is established when the woman replaces the contents of the suitcase with the word reconciliation, showing how hope is ultimately replacing grief. The woman’s future purpose is to pass on the stories of her people and let others know of her hardships, this is communicated when she leaves the suitcase at the foot of the audience and also leaves an impact on the audience, as they feel involved. Dramatic impact and optimism is once again created in Plea, as she is in a pool of light, face uplifted and no longer grieving. The audience is left feeling hopeful. So although the play strongly communicates themes initially of suffering and loss, as the performance progresses the theme changes to one of hope and reconciliation, whilst reflecting the changing political views of Aborigines and creating a strong visual impact on the audience.

“The landscape and the individual in their environment have a sense of isolation and grief; yet there is a sense of hope and future purpose”. This statement epitomises both Gary’s House and The Seven Stages Of Grieving, reflecting in them both the significant changes throughout history, which have become an integral part in Australian Contemporary theatre and the performance styles and conventions used in them.

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Junk Food Essay

The most serious dietary issue affecting today’s American children is obesity – the result of eating more food than is needed. Childhood obesity in the United States has doubled in the last ten years (Cohen). Overweight rates are increasing day by day a major cause of which is the advertising and marketing by fast food companies on television in schools. Today television advertising is filled with fast food i.e. soft drinks, burgers, pizzas etc. Fast food marketers have long known that children make attractive customers but attention to this group and to younger and younger members within it is increasing sharply. The pressure of advertising messages by the fast food companies reaches even the youngest child. 44% of the advertisements on the Saturday morning television are for foods with limited nutritional value. McDonalds, burger king and pizza hut account for 11% of these advertisements. (Cohen) To reach young children advertisers use a variety of methods, advertising on television and the Internet is just one of them. The amount of money spent on marketing directed to children and their parents rose from $6.9 billion in 1992 to $12.7 billion in 1997 (Nestle 179). Advertising must be controlled if we want to control the increasing overweight rates in the nation.

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Advertising is not only limited to television or the Internet its goes beyond them. Food companies such as McDonalds put their logos, symbols on toys games and other supplies. They also distribute coupons. McDonalds offers cups, toys and other labeled items and its does so in outlets throughout the world. Coco-cola puts its labels on various goods such as a coco-cola picnic Barbie doll. Toys like this convert children into soft-drink consumers as well as advertisers of the product. Children love such items and fast food companies reinforce such desires.

Not all families own television sets or have an internet connection but most children go to school which becomes yet another target of the food companies. They view school children as an unparalleled marketing opportunity. Soda drinks are not readily available in California’s elementary schools; vending machines selling sodas are present in many middle and high schools. Some school districts have ‘pouring contract’ agreement with soft drink companies which gives the school districts a share in profits from sales of particular brands. It refers to large payments from soft drink companies to school districts in return for the right to sell their company’s products and only those products in every one of the district’s schools. (Cohen)

A soft drink is high in calories but low in nutritional values. A 12-ounce can contains about 1.5 ounces of sugar and 160 calories but so little of nutritional value that the center for science in the public interest called it ‘liquid-candy’. (Pillsbury 178)

From 1985 to1997 school districts decreased the amount of milk they bought by nearly 30% and increased their purchases of carbonated sodas by 1100%. From 1970 to 1997 the production of sugar sweetened sodas increased from 22 to 41 gallons per person per year. (Nestle 199)

The extra calories from soft drinks replace calories from more nutritious foods and are sufficient to account for rising rates of obesity and related risk factors among American school children. Some school districts prohibit soda but allow sports drinks, which are also high in sugar content.
Soft drinks generated more than $50 billion in annual sales just in the United States in the late 1990s. In 1999 Coco-cola sold 160 brands of soft drinks in 200 countries for worldwide sales of nearly $19.8 billion. Coco-cola held 44% market share in 1999. PepsiCo is distinctly number 2 holding a roughly 30% share of the U.S. market. (Nestle 205)

The overall strategy of fast food companies is to establish brand loyalties as early in a consumer’s life as possible. Marketing efforts begin with the parents of young infants the school environment can make it difficult for parents to teach eating habits to their children by exposing students to on campus advertising and offering ready access to unhealthy food. Short lunch periods, inadequate cafeteria seating and long lunch lines prompt students to seek quick convenient snacks. They find a fast food solution available at school snack bars, vending machines etc.

According to the recently published California teenagers eating, exercise and nutrition survey based on a telephone survey of 1213 randomly selected 12-17 years old teens in California in February, march and April 1998, 68% of the adolescents reported consuming two or more servings of pastries, fried food, chips, deserts candy or soda on the day preceding the interview. And nearly one in three adolescents was at risk of being or was already overweight. (Berg 97)

Fast food companies have targeted not only children but even adults. The obesity rates are increasing day by day and people are blaming fast food companies for the growing number of over weights in the nation. The first lawsuit against fast food companies was filed in July 2002.

Caesar barber an overweight man wants four famous fast food chains namely McDonalds, Burger King, Wendy’s and KFC to pay for serving him the finger licking food that made him fat. He says that the companies did not properly disclose the ingredients of their food and the risk of eating too much. Barber,
“They never explained to me what I was eating.” (Obese man sues fast food chains)

Such cases are increasing as people realize the harmful affects of eating too much fast food followed by the problems arising due to obesity. Lawsuits to change such
advertising practice may increase in the future. Another example is the lawsuit filed by two New York teenagers against McDonalds accusing it of failing to provide necessary information about health risks associated with its meals. (Ives)

Health advocates and lawyers blame the fast food companies for the increasing number of over weights in the American society. They believe that fast food is becoming as harmful as tobacco. (Ives).

According to the book ‘Fast Food Nation’ by Eric Schlosser 96% of American school children can identify Ronald McDonald. The only frictional character with a higher degree of recognition is Santa Claus. Schlosser says it's nearly impossible to overstate the impact of the fast food industry on the nation's culture, economy and diet. "McDonald's Golden Arches," he writes, "are now more widely recognized than the Christian cross." (Obesity in children and teenagers)

Marketers will do anything to encourage even the youngest children to ask for the advertised products, therefore encouraging young people to become lifetime consumers. This increases the pressure on parents who have to control television viewing and have to resist requests for food purchases. Even when parents promote good dietary practices at home they have no control over what their children eat at school. This commercialism and advertising in schools is actually unnecessary as schools are capable of providing food with more nutritional value. Once schools meals are taken over by food companies, nutrition becomes the last priority.

To control the obesity epidemic in America we will have to take certain steps. It is very important to ban commercials in schools for food of minimum nutrition value. We will have to put an end to the sale of soft drinks, candy bar and other forms of unhealthy fast food. Fast food companies must provide the required nutrition information on packages and wrappers. Restrict television advertising of junk food and if necessary the government must raise taxes on soft drinks and other junk food. Now is the time, we must think before we eat, as we are what we eat. Only then will America be a healthy nation.

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Internet Addiction Essay

Internet addiction as a disorder is a relatively new area of discussion among researchers and other professionals. The report examines how well research on the subject reveal the true nature of the disorder. Are the starting points and techniques, which are used to study the disorder, appropriate to apply on Internet disorder and are they suitable processes to reveal the true nature of the disorder?

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Several of the studied reports imply that Internet addiction can be characterized by the same criteria as a single, anti-social behavior that has very little social redeeming value. Internet use, however, covers a much wider range of communication and activities and many of these reports do not take into account the possibility that Internet Addiction can consist of many different kinds of addiction. Internet use is also judged by traditional standards developed before Internet even existed.

Growing concern over too much Internet use has led to a sudden increase of definition, conceptualizations, and treatments. Such approaches have, however, moved much faster than theoretical consideration, measurement validation, and research into competing etiological explanations and comparable behavioral patterns. It is reasonable to assume that several forms of Internet abuse only are ways of expressing existing addict behaviors. But the possibilities Internet presents to people who risk becoming substance abusers makes it easier to fall into addict behavior. The more channels to implement abuse the more opportunities the victim has to abuse. It is not the Internet itself that is addictive in those cases, but the disorder that lies beneath the usage.

Today’s society is changing rapidly and it is necessary to develop new methods for measuring addiction, which are based on the new society that exists today. We are finding new ways of communicating and interacting with each other. This influences our perspective on Internet addiction. If society is characterized by widespread Internet activities then the definition of Internet abuse comes in a whole new perception.

Several of the examined reports have shown a lack of awareness of these facts and the results of them often hide the true disorder that lies beneath an abnormal Internet use.

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Industrialization Research Paper

Introduction
The Industrial America is closely connected with the World’s Columbian Exposition that took place in Chicago. The remarkable exhibition opened on the 21st of October in 1892 and was accessible for a whole year, until October 1893. The function of Chicago’s exposition was to show the people the industrial development and progress of the past thirty years. Exhibits were for example, two massive steam engines, various inventions by Thomas A. Edison and the first long-distance-phone-calls to the East Coast made possible by American Bell Telephone. Of course, the industrial presentation was visited by many fairgoers but not everyone enjoyed it. People were either astonished and impressed by the latest inventions or immensely overwhelmed, unable to deal with the rate of the world’s industrial movement.

Railroad and competition
Concerning the so-called “birth of modern industrial America after the Civil War” (Boyer, p. 570) there are five closely interconnected leading features: “first, the exploitation of immense coal deposits as a source of cheap energy: second, the rapid spread of technological innovation and the factory system; third, the constant pressure on firms to compete tooth-and-nail by cutting costs and prices - as well as the impulse to eliminate rivals and create monopolies; fourth, the relentless drop in price levels […]; and finally, the failure of the money supply to keep pace with the productivity” (Boyer, p. 570) which led to high interest rates and restrictions in the availability of credit. Especially the railroad system symbolized the technical evolution and led to a fast growth of cities and expansion since coal was a cheap kind of energy. The innovative equipment and machinery improved the working conditions, increased the productivity and lowered its costs but also meant a rise of harsh competition. On the one hand, farmers and industrial workers had to deal with very low incomes compared to the amount of working hours but on the other hand, they profited from the cheap goods as consumers.

Competition was not only a problem in the railroad business but also known in the industries of oil, salt and sugar, tobacco and meatpacking and lessened the amount of industries between 1870 and 1900. The Chicago meatpackers experienced a successful change and were able to enlarge their productivity in meatpacking when refrigerated railcars became available. Owing to that they were able to serve customers in the eastern cities.

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The Railroad’s importance and success
While other companies had to struggle to keep on the market, the railroad never lost its importance but became more and more essential in the world’s trade and industry and connected every state of the United States that was part of the Union, by 1900. The advantage of the railroad industry was that federal, state and local governments by means of getting terrain subsidized the railroads. Another possibility for the railroad to make money was to sell stock.

In 1837 an important invention was made, the magnetic telegraph. The usage of the magnetic telegraph made it possible to supervise the railroad traffic and relieved the coordination.

Several divisions were set up, each with a superintendent to keep everything under control. After the Civil War the magnetic telegraph was spread all over the country.

A further important point to mention is the fact, that the railroad managers were already able to control and to forecast their revenues by calculating with the costs for the engines, coal and the worker’s wages in the 1860's. Other businesses were inferior to them since they had to wait for the end of the year to find out how much earnings they had. For this and some other reasons the railroad was seen as a successful exemplar in leading a business on the national market. In the 1870's and the 1890's the railroad industry experienced a restructuring and expansion. Along with some others, a man called Jay Gould appeared in the railroad business and strengthened the competition through manipulation of stock markets and company policies while others “were upstanding businessman who managed their companies with sophistication and innovation” (Boyer, p. 572). Nevertheless they could not stop the progress of competition. Jay Gould would even set the rates below his expenses or built parallel tracks to keep the harsh contest alive. Of course, some of his competitors could not stand firm and experienced bankruptcy. Railroads rivalry did not vanish until it came to a national Depression in 1893. The industry was spared of a breakdown because of the financial support of investment bankers. Six years before the Depression took place, “the five-member Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC)” was founded in order “to oversee the practices of railroads passing through more than one state” (Boyer, p. 573). The ICC was not very success- and powerful until the Hepburn Act in 1906 allowed the members of the ICC to set the rates.

Railroads became more and more important and efficient and had replaced other means of transportation, such as stagecoach and boat, in the 1870’s. In 1883 the railroads divided the country into four time zones and five main railroad systems took over the major control. West of the Mississippi were established the Union Pacific in 1869, the Northern Pacific (1883), the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fee (1883), the Southern Pacific (1883) and the Great Northern in 1893. The introduction of the four time zones and a “uniform signaling” (Dunlavy, p. 251) were not appreciated by everyone but eased the organizational matters such as the timetables of the trains.

Encouraged by the Scottish steelmaker Andrew Carnegie the railroad and the steel industry grew closer together. The railroad was a good customer for the steel industry and the steel industry needed someone for transporting its goods. The Scottish immigrant developed manager skill by observing Jay Gould and was therefore also able to calculate his profit before the year is up. “Carnegie’s life was the embodiment of the rags-to-riches dream” (Boyer, p. 573) since he started his business career as a bobbin boy in a textile mill and finally became the division chief of the railroad’s Western Division.

The oil boom and mass-production
The oil boom was started by Edwin L. Drake in 1859 when he found the first petroleum well in Pennsylvania and small refineries were build up almost all over the state.

In the year 1870, the merchant John D. Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company and “realized that in a mass-production enterprise, small changes could save thousands of dollars” (Boyer, p. 576). Only 9 years later Rockefeller was the major figure in the oil industry. With the entry of mass-production and also over-production, oil was wasted and pollution highly increased. Developing tactics in order to keep up with competitors predominated and finally there needed something to be done to stop or at least to lessen the competition. In 1882 John D.

Rockefeller set up the Standard Oil Trust whose members had the power over different companies. Logically other industries tried to gain success with the same means as him. Since Congress was afraid that competition would entirely vanish, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act passed in 1890, “which outlawed trusts and any other contracts or combinations or combinations in restraint of trade […] [b]ut the loosely worded act failed to define clearly either trust or restraint of trade” (Boyer, p. 578).

Technological advantages and disadvantages
After 1870 many innovations were made and incorporated into production lines but not all of them were obvious to the consumers. On the one hand, new inventions brought advantages and simplified many manufacturing methods, such as canning, bottle- and glass-making or flour milling, but on the other hand, innovations like the light bulb extended the employees working hours. Before Thomas A. Edison developed the light bulb (1879) people could only work during the hours of daylight after that it would be too dark. The usage of electrical light led to regular and longer working hours. Another product of the further improved technology is the Singer sewing machine, which was for the first time available in the 1860s. The sewing machine meant easing to any housewife while others had to suffer from it. Laborers experienced that they were replaceable by machines, they were exploited and only paid subsistence wages and had to work overtime from the time when they did not depend on natural light anymore. The already very low wages became even lower when immigrants arrived in America, “who tended to be less skilled and less well informed about the marketplace than the native population” (Carmichael, pp. 100-101). The positive effect of the new technologies was that new jobs opened but always under the pressure to manufacture as many products as possible. America’s industrialists invented not constantly new products but profited from “their unique ability to take existing technology and adapt it to their own particular use” (Carmichael, p.104). Then mass-production turned into an over-production and entrepreneurs were facing a new problem, namely how to turn their goods into profit. Therefore businessman had to come up with new strategies, developed new product lines, brand names, trademarks and the idea of corporate identity appeared to “built demand for their products” (Boyer, p. 581). The so-called second industrial revolution and its inventions “inspired optimism that future technologies might lead to the betterment of society itself” (Boyer, p. 579).

Conclusion
In 1892 America already played a very important role on the world’s market and enjoyed the reputation of being the world’s scene of invention. Nevertheless there is one thing to keep in mind, namely that the Americans are blessed with a few advantages. They have not only a huge amount of land to use or a large labor force, for example immigrants but also an enormous supply of natural resources as oil or steel. Therefore it is not farfetched that the Europeans “coined the term ‘American System’”, to describe “a system of mass production, of standardized interchangeable parts with heavy emphasis on utility, and a great disregard for aesthetics” (Carmichael, pp. 102-103).

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E-Learning Essay

In today’s competitive and fast-paced society both educational institutions and businesses can’t afford to waste time or money when it comes targeting the right business solutions. One of the most popular business solutions used today is E-learning. E-learning (electronic learning) is a term that covers a wide set of applications and processes, such as Web-based learning, virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration. It includes the delivery of content via the Internet, intranet/extranet (LAN/WAN), audio and videotape, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, CD-ROM, and more. This essay will cover some of the many terms associated with E-learning and help to provide a better understanding of what e-learning technologies have to offer.

At New York University E-learning is used for the various online (50/50) courses offered. These courses require students to receive fifty percent of their learning via traditional studies (in classroom) and fifty percent via the Web. The BBS (bulletin board system) is utilized, providing an online community run on a host computer where users can dial or log into in order to post messages on public discussion boards. Students can also send and receive e-mail, chat with other users, and upload or download files. BBS’s are generally text-based and often related to the specific hobbies or interests of their creators.

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Another term that is closely related to BBS is Distance Education/Learning; where the instructor and students are separated by time, location, or both. This is a process where educational training courses are delivered to remote locations via synchronous (real-time learning event in which all participants are logged on at the same time and communicate directly with each other) or asynchronous (interaction between instructors and students occur intermittently with a time delay) means of instruction, including written correspondence, text, graphics, audio and videotape, CD-ROM, online learning, audio and videoconferencing, interactive TV, and Fax. As with BBS, Distance education does not preclude the use of the traditional classroom.

E-learning from a business point-of-view is driven by the overall needs of the company (i.e. Employee Development, HR Development, Sales, Customer Relations Management). These are some of the areas that businesses look to improve upon in order to increase productivity and improve on quality and service. Companies that are serious about best-practice learning spend a lot of time analyzing their business needs to ensure the best results. Specifications for the E-learning process are usually put into place first which entails a plan, instruction, or protocol for E-learning that’s established or agreed upon. This term is often used interchangeably with standard, but the two terms are not truly synonymous. Specifications become standards only after they’ve been approved by an accrediting agency.

Once specifications have been establish, business requirements are focused on in order to satisfy the conditions the e-learning solution should meet to align with the needs of such stakeholders as the content developer, subject matter expert, learner, manager, and training administrator.

As mentioned before, companies who embrace best-practice learning sometimes elect an executive whose primary responsibility is to ensure strategic human capital development (CLO). The CLO (Chief Learning Officer) ensures that all learning investments focus on accomplishing the organization’s mission, strategy, and goals. He/she provides a single point of accountability for those investments; develops the corporate learning strategy; creates a culture of continuous learning; fosters communities of practice; integrates training functions; drives cultural transformation; and measures the impact on organizational performance. The CLO increasingly reports to either the CEO or senior vice president of HR. He or she is to learning what the CFO and CIO are to finance and information technology.

Companies who view learning and/or training at this level sometimes integrate a learning organization known as a Corporate University. Corporate universities are not real universities (i.e. campuses, classrooms, etc.); these organizations are specifically structured with a governance system that aligns all learning with corporate or agency mission, strategy and goals. The governance system typically includes a governing board consisting of the CEO and other senior executives (i.e. CLO). CEO’s of best-practice learning organizations leverage their corporate university to achieve performance goals, drive cultural transformation, reform and integrate training departments, and establish and sustain competitive advantage through learning.

These organizations sometimes utilize E-learning to teach or reinforce soft skills (business skills such as communication and presentation, leadership and management, human resources, sales and marketing, professional development, project and time management, customer service, team building, administration, accounting and finance, purchasing, and personal development), or hard skills (technical skills).

Businesses utilize E-learning in many ways and with collaborative technology the learning is so much easier. Collaborative technology is software, platforms or services that enable people at different locations to communicate and work with each other in a secure, self-contained environment. These may include capabilities for document management, application sharing, presentation development and delivery. Other forms of collaborative technology like simulations (highly interactive applications that allow the learner to model or role-play in a scenario) or white boarding (an electronic version of a dry-ease board that enables learners in a virtual classroom to view what an instructor writes or draws) are for businesses quite frequently as well as audio conferencing (voice-only connection of more than two sites using standard telephone lines.) and teleconferencing (two-way electronic communication between two or more groups in separate locations via audio, video and/or computer systems.)

However, the most two of the most popular forms E-learning used by businesses today are web conferencing (a meeting of participants from disparate geographic locations that’s held in a virtual environment on the World Wide Web, with communication taking place via text, audio, video, or a combination of those methods.) and webinars (a small synchronous online learning event in which a presenter and audience members communicate via text chat or audio about concepts often illustrated via online slides and/or an electronic whiteboard – webinars are often archived as well for asynchronous, on-demand access). Both technologies provide great flexibility and accessibility.

Overall, E-learning technologies can create great value for businesses. Some of E-learning’s value-added services include: custom training needs assessment and skill-gap analysis, curriculum design and development, pre-and post training mentoring and support, training effectiveness analysis, reporting and tracking tools, advisor services and implementation consulting, hosting and management of Internet or intranet-based learning systems, integration of enterprise training delivery systems, and other services.

Although E-learning has become quite popular over the past few years – it’s not for everyone. If you or your company is interested in E-learning – here are some ways to get started: do a web search for e-learning services, ask a friend or colleague or contact your local telephone service provider. Good luck on your way to E-learning!

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IT Research Paper

Over the past few years IT has played an even greater role on the world economies. Before the use of IT in our economies the way governments watched over there economies was totally different compared to today where things as the internet has made keeping track of sales, purchases is a hard thing to do. Also such other things such as the premise that IT has caused unemployment, the contribution of IT to the inability of governments to control their economies and the influence of IT on the stock market will all be discussed. But with all this in mind it is clear to say IT has played a role in the economy and will currently and continue to play as role as we more heavily rely on IT.

The premise that IT has caused unemployment. It can be said IT has caused a dramatic effect for such things in our societies such as unemployment. It is also true to say with the use of IT this has caused unemployment due to today’s workforce being more efficient and better equipped to do there jobs than ever before. Currently the trend that is appearing is that people need to have skills in one area rather than rely on older types of work that was done in the past etc Manual Labour.

In such things such as manual labour where 50 years ago all of this type of work was done with men physically doing this with there tools etc which was slow and tedious but provided many jobs for unskilled workers but whereas today we rely on bobcats, bulldozers etc and other technological advancements in this area to do these jobs which is quicker, more efficient and requires a lot less workers than before where ass unskilled workers done these jobs before workers with more skills today do these jobs. There are still jobs that require labour like previously but not in the numbers as before but the disadvantages outweigh the advantages in this area because you did not need to have a lot of skill to do these jobs but now even to work a bobcat, bulldozer etc you need some skill to control the vehicle and work it.

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Also in the area of data processing where we required huge warehouses to store the information and huge numbers of people to enter data, maintain etc now we can have data processors done by small groups of people entering it into computers and there is a smaller chance of error and better data backup than before, which has inturn created IT jobs which has helped society and given more skilled workers to this area but has also lost more jobs due to less need for large numbers of data entry workers.

With the new area of IT into our society, it has given us the need for new jobs which inturn has created new jobs for us all. Whether it be in simple computer operators, help desk, network administrators etc it has created jobs. But it is hard to say whether IT has filled the gap between this new area of work and the jobs lost due to IT. It is to my opinions that IT has caused more loss of jobs compared to jobs being made.

The dot com boom also presented society with a lot more IT jobs which inturn helped the economy and which then helped the dot com boom because there were plenty of workers in the IT area with plenty of jobs available. But when demand flattened out so did the jobs and need to workers, and when the dot com bust happened there were a lot of jobs in the IT area lost due to the loss of interest and firing/retrenching etc of a lot of IT workers because it was apparent to investors etc that dot com companies were not profitable which meant investors took there money from these business’s and invested elsewhere and hence a loss of job, and loss of income for workers in the area.

But there have been claims that IT has not caused loss in jobs but rather ha made new jobs. As quoted from http://www.newaus.com.au/econ53.html “Any period of prolonged unemployment or rapid technological change invariably conjures up the myth of technological unemployment, even though history and economics has long since discredited it. What is particularly worrying about the current resurrection of this economic fallacy is that it is so-called academics who are struggling to give it respectability. Greg Callaghan's article Digital Downsizing in Employment is Creating a New Social Divide (The Australian 14/2/98) epitomises all too well what now tends to pass for serious economic and social comment in the Australian media. At least it demonstrated the utter poverty of left-wing economic thinking on technology and its basic intellectual dishonesty.” Which to an extent there has been mixed opinion in society about whether IT has played a role in our unemployment problems, but in my opinion I tend to disagree and think IT has caused more losses in jobs rather than helping.

The contribution of IT to the inability of governments to control their economies. The way governments control their economies can be different per state, or it can be different per country. Also with the way these governments tax IT is different as well and these are big factors that contribute to how IT can cause inability of governments to control there economies.

In Australia the government does not have one standard set of laws that we all abide buy but it varies from State to State i.e. Pornography, Fireworks, Online Gambling and so on. But it is legal for a company to operate from these states and provide service/products to people in states where it is illegal. An example is online gambling where as it is illegal to run these services from anywhere in Australia except for Northern Territory and Australia’s Capital Territory where it is legal to setup and have these services. This in turn lets you gamble even if you are not in these states, but the Australian government still collects taxes from these companies to an extent it can still control the way it controls the economy when online gambling is concerned. So where it is illegal to setup these online gambling sites in states that do now allow it means it prohibited business from running these services out of that state but it does not prohibit people from playing these online services if the online gaming sites are located in places where they are allowed to operate legally. So in fact the government wins in both aspects because it sill picks up all the taxes etc involved in these services. But online services are harder to tax because it maybe harder to calculate costs and also to what extent the government wants to tax them so it is to a fair amount.

With the widespread use of IT in all sectors of our lives it is true to say that governments of today are having trouble controlling this. The internet for example is a thing that is very hard to control seeing as it really is international and even if content is blocked there is still ways around it. For instance China banned the search engine google.com totally from being viewed in China, but people out there made alternate ways to view the page (proxies etc) which made China re think there strategy and allow access to the site. China wanted google banned from being viewed because it contained sites the government did not was its population to see what was out there in the world and could better control online shopping etc in China to an extent.

The way government’s tax IT has also be an issue of late because a government can lose control of the way it controls its economy. With saying this it is becoming increasingly harder for governments to collect taxes for goods bought online. Online shopping still gets tariffs applies to it etc but if someone in Australia purchases a product from the US and imports it from here the US government collect the sales tax rather than the Australia government. This is why the Australian government is trying to encourage more online shops here because if goods are bought from Australia from anywhere else in the world the Australian government can collect the good and sales tax etc which is better for them in the long run.

Different laws between two countries can be an issue as far the way economies control there issues because what maybe legal in one country maybe illegal here in Australia which means the government can have trouble filtering and stopping these things/services etc into the country, which can also harm the economy. But this has been the case for many years where different countries laws affect us, but with the growing pace of online shopping this maybe an issue that arises sooner rather than later in concerns to the internet. But at the moment IT has been a good thing for the Australian economy and also other major economic powers like United States and the UK and even better for us because the US and UK as of late have been buying goods of us because it can be bought here cheaper than over there which in turn fuels our economy

But it can be said that IT has caused a good deal of confusion in the past few years as to how governments control there economies concerning IT but this is flattening out and becoming more controlled and stable due to people now expecting how IT can effect economies.

The influence of IT on the stock market. As of late IT has played a big role in the way stock can be bought and sold. Now the value of stock can be monitored literally 24hours a day, and be sold and bought at any point where a share lowers or gains value IT has had a big role where the stockholder is concerned. It has also greatly affected the way the stock exchange runs where now where there have been specialised computers made to continuously monitor and analyse the stock exchange to give the latest and most update figures which inturn leads to a more stable exchange where the values of shares can be predicted a lot easier than in the past.

The dot com boom has played a role in the way the stock exchange is run by when there was a lot of hype about IT; it spurred the use of computer systems to be used in conjunction with the stock exchange which then gave investors a lot more updated and correct view of the stock exchange. Also when the dot com companies hit the stock exchanges around the world there seemed to be a lot of interest for them, seeing as it was a new area never seen before by investors etc which then inturn caused there to be great interest in these new dot com companies. When stockholders/investors etc started investing in these business’s there stocks sky rocketed which made there share prices be worth more than the dot com company could ever make. There was great interest in these companies even up to when they busted due to bank statements for the years following all the hype which showed dot com companies running at losses or barely making a profit which investors did not like and then started taking there money from these dotcom companies and investing elsewhere which caused a rift in markets. Investors widely started taking there investments from these companies which overall affected dot com companies and then caused a bust where we seen a lot of companies fail and cease to exist. This caused the dot com bust due to the low interest and investors taking there money elsewhere. But with this happening there were a few dot com companies that did survive even to this day (Amazon, Yahoo), but as you can tell by today’s markets the dot com hype has levelled out and seems to be stable which in the past could not be said where when the dot com companies shares boomed everyone invested i.e. large shareholders to small shareholders who only had a small stake in the company. There seems to be renewed interest in the dot com due to online sales growing and people are more willing to spend money online which inturn helps out these dot com companies. According to http://www.internetnews.com/bus-news/article.php/1381331. “In a sign that the Internet sector may be nearing the end of its 18-month-old shakeout, a new report from Webmergers.com shows the number of shutdowns and bankruptcies by dot-com’s in the first half of this year fell 73% from the same period last year. While at least 93 Internet companies closed their doors or filed for bankruptcy protection in the first six months of 2002, the number is down is down dramatically from the 345 cases during the same period in 2001, according to the San Francisco research firm that has been tallying falls in the industry.” But IT has played a role in the stock market with the dot com boom and bust where if affected other areas of the stock exchange to an extent which made investors/governments re think there views on IT as far as the economy goes where IT stock prices were determined through supply and demand.

In closing it is clear to say IT has played a role in today’s economy and in fact the worlds economies and will continue to do so. Whether IT has been good for the economy is another thing and it can be said that it has helped our economies more rather than hinder us. IT is and will continue to play a bigger role in our society and economy as we know it. Whether our economy adapts to these new changes and embraces them is another thing but it seems as if the government will incorporate these new changes. But how the government controls this is another thing. IT will also have effects on the stock exchange and unemployment rates that will affect the economy in the long run and will have benefit society and will continue to benefit our society.

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Gene Therapy Essay

Most diseases have a genetic component and can be cured, not merely treated with gene therapy. This applies to a wide range of ailment form, inherited diseases such as cystic fibrosis and chronic conditions like cancer to infectious diseases such as HIV and AIDS. In the time period from 1990 until 2000 over 400 clinical trials, to test this technology against a huge array of diseases, have been launched by researchers worldwide. Cancer has dominated this research but little of it has worked. In 1999 things got worse for this research because a patient died from a reaction to gene therapy at the University of Pennsylvania’s Institute of Human Gene Therapy. The after math of this death was terrible and there have been many actions taken to cut the chances of it happening again in the future. The FDA and the NIH (National Institutes of Health) have preformed several investigations of the studies at the University of Pennsylvania and other institutes. These investigations have shown the most researchers were not following all federal rules or reporting all the incidents in their institutes.

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In response to the accident the FDA immediately shut down all gene transfer trials at the University of Pennsylvania. The FDA also shut down other Studies including St. Elizabeth’s Medical Center in Boston and the Schering-Plough Corporation. In the months after the accident some researches voluntarily suspended their studies in gene therapy to review their studies and to learn from the mistakes of the University of Pennsylvania. Not long after the FDA started random inspections of clinical trials in more then twenty-four gene therapy programs across the nation, and instituted new reporting requirements. At this same time the President announced that, pending the legislation is passed, FDA could fine researcher and/or institutions for drugs and biologics.

Genetic engineering has always worried the public and since scientists learned to clone genes in the mid 1970’sthe public opinion of it has gotten worse. To assuage the public the NIH formed the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee, or RAC. As a result of this the general opposition subsided. In the mid 1990’s the head of the NIH created a committee to review NIH field investments. The conclusions were bleak. While the promise of this technology was great, the clinical efficiency had not been definitively demonstrated. This was a very tough task because to deliver the new genes they had to make a virus harmless and inject the new genes into it for the delivery.

But not all the news I bad, it is true that cures have not been seen but there are signs that important advances may be on the way.

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Genetic Engineering Essay

Many people have been discussing the scientific advancements recently made in genetic engineering. Genetic engineering has the ability to reconstruct an organism’s DNA and chromosomes. Some believe that this new scientific ability will better our environment. However, I feel that genetic engineering has the potential to do more negative than positive.

By altering an organism’s genetic composition, one also risks changing how it reacts with its environment. Scientist may feel that they have genetically reconstructed an exact replica of an organism. This organism’s physical appearance and general behavior may even imitate the original model used. However, when placing the organism in its environment it may react much differently because of an internal flaw.

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For example, a scientist could decide to genetically construct a plant’s genetics so that it was identical to the “model“ plant. Physically both may appear to be identical. However, when they place the genetically engineered plant into its natural environment, it could begin to release poison’s into the earth. This could create problems for surrounding plants and animals. Many concerned scientists have already sited this possible dilemma. Genetic Engineering states that scientist “...argue that altering an organism’s genetic makeup could affect how it interacts with other organisms, including both humans that consume it and other plants and animals in its habitat”.

Genetic engineering could also cause one’s opinion of the value of life to decrease. This is unethical and unmoral. Life was originally created and terminated by nature. By attempting to construct organisms, it is as if a individual is trying to “play God”. It is also an attempt to create life for convenience with seemingly little thought or effort. This could possibly lead to the treatment of humans as products instead of people. In Genetic Engineering, it states that “Johnson fears that genetic engineering will result in the devaluing of life because genes, embryos, and ultimately people will all be thought of as commodities to be bought and sold”.

Genetic reconstruction could possibly negatively effect people’s social standards by allowing them to have much harsher judgment on what is considered normal. This was addressed in an editorial in the Christian Science Monitor. This editorial states, “As knowledge about human genetics expands, so does the temptation to label as abnormal or as maladies traits that today are seen as ‘normal’ physical variations...the idea that genetics can explain and address many of humanity’s physical and behavioral ills threatens to reinforce a notion that humans are merely the sum of exchangeable molecules.” If people decide to use genetic engineering to eliminate “flaws”, those who are unable to afford this procedure would then be considered abnormal. Because they may have minor imperfections that are considered normal by standards now, they could be considered abnormal by the genetically engineered population.

There are some people that support genetic engineering because they feel it will allow people to lengthen their life span. By using genetic engineering, there are hopes of constructing “healthy” organs. However, there is not enough research about how this could effect the receiver of the engineered organ. There is a possibility that the organ would not be able to support the individual who received it for a significant amount of time because of unseen flaws. Even if the organ was indeed healthy, there is still a large possibility that it could cause a chain reaction in the malfunction of other organs. Because of the lack of research, the organ intended to solve life-threatening problems could create more complications throughout the remainder of life.

Overall, I feel that genetic engineering has the potential to do more negative than positive. Because of the lack of research about the effects of genetic engineering, people should be cautious . Genetic engineering is open to many uncertain complications.

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Hypnosis Research Paper

This research paper's objective is to highlight hypnosis and some aspects of its background. The paper will also illuminate some of the benefits as well as controversies of the long debated topic of hypnosis. In this paper you will come across an astonishing, but tragic event that shows how hypnosis effects our every day lives. Lastly, by time you have read this paper in its entirety, your perception of hypnosis will be changed forever.

Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness in which a subject is highly receptive to suggestion. The average person goes in and out of hypnosis many times in an average day without even noticing the change in consciousness. A person can become temporarily hypnotized while watching television, listening to the radio or even listening to someone talk. Over hundreds of years people have integrated this natural phenomena into a method in which one can be healed. Although this method seems effective it has many controversies. This papers objective is to explain hypnosis; in addition to highlighting useful applications and controversies that this phenomena entails.

Hypnosis dates back hundreds of years, and tells of mysterious states in which people are able to be healed or have behaviors modified. Hypnosis is a state in which the person being hypnotized follows the suggestions of hypnotist. Hypnosis can be induced in many different ways, and a hypnotist doesn’t nessacerily have to be a practitioner or train professional. In the work “Clinical application of hypnosis” edited by Depiano and Salzberg there is an interesting scenario demonstrating this theory. “Rhodes documents how the power of suggestion worked on some of the Malay inhabitants of Borneo. The cook of a coasting steamer had his baby brought to him when the ship was in port. He was known to be intensely devoted to and proud of the child. While he was cradling the baby in his arms on the deck of the steamer, one of the Malay crew came along with a load of wood which he pretended to nurse in his arms like a baby. He began tossing the wood into the air catching it as it fell, getting the man with the baby in his arms to imitate him. The man did so, and then the sailor opened his arms and let the wood fall on the deck, the miserable father did likewise with the baby who fell heavily on the deck and never regained consciousness.” This exert shows how hypnosis plays a part in everyday events. Hypnosis doesn’t have to be in a clinical setting in order to be classified as such. Hypnosis is any situation in which a person becomes highly relaxed and suggestibility is amplified.

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“Benefits of hypnosis are concise and astonishing when the outcome is truly desired” (Hypnosis and suggestibility in hypnosis. by H, Bernheim, M.D.). Benefits of hypnosis involve regressive therapy, which allows one to go back to certain events in life and properly interpret experiences so that problems resulting from these experiences can come to an end. Hypnosis also helps one to insert affirmations (suggestions) into the subconscious mind allowing the elimination of problems like smoking or depression to occur. Stopping or forming new habit is also another major benefit of hypnosis. The only catch to hypnosis is a person’s susceptibility rate.

All people are not susceptible to be hypnotized, and a small number of people who are susceptible to hypnosis do not respond to suggestions placed in the subconscious mind by a hypnotist. People who are not susceptible to hypnosis usually do not have an I.Q. in the normal range.

Although hypnosis is proven to be effective it has gained many controversies throughout the many centuries it has been used in practice. One main debate of hypnosis is weather or not the hypnotist has control over your mind once you are in a trance rendering you helpless. Many people defer away from the topic of hypnosis for this reason in it self. Another controversy or low-point involved in hypnosis is weather or not the results are permanent. People also worry about weather or not they will be susceptible to hypnosis as I touched on in the proceeding paragraph. Another underlying reason why people don’t seriously consider hypnosis is because it is a taboo topic in society, people are afraid of what others will view them as if they are known to have tried, or even considering hypnosis.

Hypnosis has mind boggling and mysterious properties which make up its many wonders as well as raise just as many questions concerning its applications. Hypnosis is commonly viewed as a way to entertain, or associated with practices involving unusual practitioners such as hypnotist. But as we now know hypnosis is a natural phenomena associated with consciousness and everyday happenings. Hypnosis has been over time been proven to be effective despite controversies throughout it centuries of practice. In closing, hypnosis is a subject that will continue to captivate imaginations for centuries to come.

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Human Behavior Research Paper

The profession of modern social work developed in the nineteenth century around the same time as mainstream social sciences such as sociology, psychology, and criminology to name a few. During the early stages of the profession, social workers helped with the human struggles that were derived from the tremendous social and economic changes of the period (Parton, 2000, pp. 450) As the profession continued to grow, it utilized many of the existing theories from sociology, psychology, and the like while developing it’s own framework, code of ethics, and theoretical perspectives. This research paper will be primarily focused around one theoretical perspective in particular, the person in environment perspective. I will be discussing in detail the psychosocial development theories of attachment (Bowlby and Ainsworth) and how these theories fit into the person in environment perspective. To aid in the critical thinking process I will be presenting a case study.

As I have already mentioned, the Person in Environment Perspective (P.I.E.) is one of eight theoretical perspectives in social work. Person in Environment Perspective is an approach for understanding human behavior by assessing the person and their environment i.e. how the individual functions, is affected by, and responds to their particular system/environment.

Environment factors include the following:
1) Physical environment
2) Culture
3) Social institutions and social structure
4) Families
5) Small groups
6) Formal organizations
7) Communities
8) Social movements

This perspective suggests that human behavior is learned and influenced by the interaction of each individual and their particular environment. This perspective is unique because it recognizes all three dimensions of a person 1) biological 2) psychological 3) spiritual in addition to their environment ( Hutchison, 2003, pp. 44). In researching the relationship between theory and practice of the social work profession, I came across the following quote “literature and poetry afford far more penetrating and meaningful insight into the human heart than psychological texts” (Parton, 2000, pp. 452). In other words, the problems of an individual are complex and involve many outside influencing factors beyond a mere scientific explanation. This in part applies to the person in environment perspective. Certain environmental factors such as inadequate care giving by the primary care giver, family domestic violence, child abuse, and poverty all have the potential to change the healthy development of an individual. Human behavior and development of an individual focuses on 3 primary areas with subareas within each, the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development.

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Socioemotional/Psychosocial development refers to the developmental tasks in the emotional and social arena. Erik Erikson’s theory looked to explain the socioemotional development in eight consecutive, age-defined stages of emotional development. According to Erikson each stage had a developmental task that needed to be mastered and each stage was dependent upon the previous stage. If an individual does not master a developmental task of a certain stage than he/she becomes stagnant in their emotional development and remains stuck at that particular stage regardless of an increase in their age. He theorizes that an individual gets stuck in a stage because the “task facilitating factors” for that stage are absent. Stage one is

Trust vs Mistrust
(ages birth-11/2). The overall task of this stage is for an infant to develop a sense that their needs (physical, safety, stimulation, and emotional) will be met by the outside world and thus with these needs met the world is then interpreted an okay place to be. It is also during this stage that the infant is to develop an emotional bond with an adult. If these “task facilitating factors” are present the infant will develop trust and in turn will have the foundation for building intimate, loving relationships in the future. (Hutchison, 2003, pp. 129-32)

An infant who develops mistrust will have deep seated feelings of dependency, suspicious of the world, react with rage. Erikson theorizes mistrust lead to a lack of drive and motivation for continued growth, thus these individuals lack trust and in turn are not able to form intimate relationships later in life. As one might imagine there is some criticism to Erikson’s theory because he fails to mention whether or not a task may be mastered later in life if the “task facilitating factors” are introduced. Also Erikson fails to address the environmental factors such as cultural influence on the stages. Erikson’s stages are said to be of a North American, Western value and would not be applicable to collectivistic societies such as African or Asian or some subcultures of the United States. Thus Erikson’s theory of development is questionable when assessing if it truly fits with the person in environment perspective. (Hutchison, 2003, pp. 130-31)

Attachment is said to be a key component in emotional development in determining the level of an individuals ability to form emotional bonds with other people. The Attachment theory was originally developed by John Bowlby in 1969 which later was revised by Mary Ainsworth and colleagues in 1978. Bowlby theorized that attachment was a natural process due in part of a survival instinct and a need for protection. The attachment theory contains many factors including a biological, psychodynamic/emotional, and social/systemic. I was drawn to Bowlby’s theory because he appears to define attachment in the realm of it occurring naturally between a mother and her infant. He does note that infants can demonstrate attachment behaviors towards others but it occurs earliest with the mother and the attachment is defined as being stronger and more consistent. However, he theorizes that the attachment between the infant and mother will ensure the infant with adequately be cared for and protected. The bond is created initially by the mother responding to her infant by smiling, cooing, clinging etc. This theory got me to ponder if the long term developmental effects would be similar to Erikson’s Mistrust theory especially if the infant was not able to form an attachment with its mother due to the mother having a lack of interest, poor parenting skills, mental illness, low IQ, abuse etc. More importantly I was interested in finding out how the person in environment perspective applied to attachment theory. (Pickover, 2002) Bowlby did theorize that childhood attachments could have long-term effects on the persons experience and ability to cope with stressful situations as well as influence how the person interacts with significant others (Iwaniec, 2001).

Prior to presenting a case study I would like to briefly discuss Ainsworth’s theory of attachment, specifically the three styles of attachment they developed. Secure attachment is defined as a successful correlation between the child’s needs and the appropriate response by the caregiver. The other 2 styles are often collectively referred to as insecure attachment. The intensity of insecure attachment places the child at risk for clinical pathology. Many mental health counselors are having to utilize the attachment theory as it is increasingly becoming a primary clinical focus as they attempt to cope with the repercussions of an insecure attachment style. (Pickover, 2002)

The case study I will be discussing is based upon research that focused on Attachment styles in adults who failed to thrive as children (NOFTT). Non organic failure to thrive is defined as the basic needs of an infant go unmet i.e.; feeding and nurturing. “Non organic” refers to there being no medical cause for the infants failure to thrive or poor development. The cause is thought to be environmental neglect and stimulus deprivation. Potential parental factors that place an infant at risk for NOFTT are: maternal depression, maternal malnutrition during pregnancy, marital problems, mental illness, and/or substance abuse of the care taker. When a social worker is working with a NOFTT infant there needs to be intervention for the parent(s) as well as the infant. (Hutchison, 147) NOFTT is associated with inadequate nutrition for normal growth, acute feeding difficulties, disturbed mother-child interaction and relationship, insecure attachment, family dysfunctioning, and poverty (Iwaniec, 2001).

Case study: Sally is a 8 month old white infant who was recently diagnosed as non organic failure to thrive (NOFTT). Sally is developing poorly, is far below normal weight and size. Physically her hair is very thin and she is bald in some spots, she also has dark circles under her eyes. She displays developmental retardation. Sally becomes tense in the presence of her mother, Hope, and she shows no interest in her mother or distress when her mom leaves. Her affect is flat, expressionless face. Hope describes Sally as having poor sleeping patterns and is difficult to console when she is upset. Hope has a history of mental illness which she is periodically in and out of MHU. She also has a history of noncompliance with her psychotropic medication. Furthermore, she reports a history of self-medicating with alcohol and marijuana abuse. Hope is currently receiving DSS and reports that she has no family in the area to help her with Sally. (Iwaniec, 2001)

Without any level of intervention Sally will more than likely continue to fail to thrive. Research shows that FTT children have an insecure attachment. However, with the appropriate level of intervention the same research shows that these children can change their attachment style and develop a secure attachment. By applying the person in environment perspective the social worker is better able to incorporate interventions that would be with standing. By looking into the family environment including extending the social worker would be able to determine if Hope had a secure attachment. A large percentage of people who have insecure attachment without intervention will often have difficulty obtaining a secure attachment with their own children. Crisis intervention should involve getting services of day care for Sally, some economic assistance i.e.; WIC, food stamps. Counseling should be provided for Hope so she can get adequate help with her mental illness and personal development. Intervention should also take place at providing parenting education i.e. attachment work. Hope needs to be educated on how to care for a FTT child. She needs to become aware of healthy parenting styles. Hope should also become actively involved in a support groups for mothers/parents of FTT children. (Iwaniec, 2001)

In recognizing the person in enviroment perspective the social worker should also be aware of cultural influences on attachment patterns. In the case study the family was white american and secure attachment was viewed as the “better” pattern. However, if the family was of Germain decent the more desirable attachment is that of avoidant attachment and thus some of the interventions that worked with Sally and Hope may have negative and stressful impact on the family of this cultural background. (Iwaniec, 2001, pp. 191)

In conclusion, the attachment theory fits into the person in enviroment perspective primarily because the child’s level of attachment has been shown to be influenced by enviromental factors. Poverty, domestic violence, cultural aspects, and maternal dysfunction all have the ability to effect the attachment style of a person. More importantly, as is evident by the case study, with the appropriate level of intervention a FTT child can develop a secure attachment, thus develop a worthy self image, trust, intimate relationship etc. Furthermore, when life circumstances are improved people are able to change by reassessing their present position and feelings through the development of of being secure in the relationships with the people that matter most to them.

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Human Aggression Essay

It is said that in its most extreme forms, aggression is human tragedy unsurpassed. Since World War II, homicide rates have increased in a number of countries, more so in a number of countries, more so in the United States. As a result of this, more interest has been put in to learning why humans sometimes act aggressively.

Some of the causes of the increased violence have been identified. The accessibility of guns (O’ Donnell 1995), global warming (Anderson et. Al. 1997), violence against children in schools and homes (Hyman 1995, Straus 2000), and the widespread exposure to violent entertainment media (Bushman & Huesmann 2001) all contribute to the high level of violence and aggression in our societies. Recent research has founded new treatments (e.g., Borduin 1999), new empirical discoveries (e.g., Baumeister et al. 1996, Bushmann 1995), and new theoretical analyses (e.g., Eron et al. 1994, Green & Donnerstein 1998, Huesmann et al. 1996).

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Human aggression is any behavior directed toward another individual that is carried out with the immediate intent to cause harm. Accidental harm is not aggressive because it is not intended. Violence is aggression that has extreme harm as its goal. Hostile aggression has been conceived as impulsive, unplanned, driven by anger, having the ultimate motive of harming the target. Instrumental aggression is conceived as a premeditated means of obtaining some goal other than harming the victim.

Recent analysis modifies the definitions of hostile and instrumental aggression in two ways. First, intention to harm as a necessary feature of all aggression, but it is necessary only as a proximate goal. Second, distinguish between different types of aggression at the level of ultimate goal.

There are five main theories of aggression that guide most research. The cognitive neoassociation theory links aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behavioral tendencies in memory. If people are motivated to do so, they might think about how they feel, make casual causes for what led them to feel this way, and then consider the consequences of acting on their feelings. Deliberate thoughts such as this produces more clearly differentiated feelings of anger, fear, or both. Doing this can suppress or enhance the tendencies associated with these feelings. The social learning theory reveals that people acquire other forms of social behavior. The script theory defines situations and guide behavior. Once a script is learned, it may be retrieved at a later time and used as a guide for behavior. The excitation transfer theory says that physical arousal dissipates slowly. The social interaction theory interprets aggressive behavior, as social influence behavior. The theory suggests an explanation of aggressive acts motivated by ultimate goals.

The most recent version of the framework brought together is called the general aggression model (GAM). The framework is designed to bring together existing theories of aggression to form a whole. GAM is based on more recent work such as perception, interpretation, decision making and action on the development and use of knowledge structures. Knowledge structures develop out of experience, influence perception at multiple levels, can become automat zed with use, are linked to affective states, behavioral programs and beliefs, and are used to guide peoples’ interpretations and behavioral responses to their social environment.

Knowledge structures affect in three different ways. When a knowledge structure containing anger is activated, then anger is experienced. They include knowledge such as when an emotion should be experienced, how they influenced peoples’ judgments and behavior. A script may include it as an action rule.

Research on aggression focuses on investigating what biological, environmental, psychological, and social factors influence aggressive behavior, and on how to use what they find to help unwarranted aggression. Person factors include traits, sex (males & females), beliefs, attitudes values, long-term goals, and scripts. Situational factors include aggressive cues, provocation, frustration, pain and discomfort, drugs and incentives. Cognition is hostile thoughts and scripts. Affect can be because of mood and emotion as well as expressive motor responses.

Arousal can trigger aggression from a person being provoked or instigated, elicited by irrelevant sources that can be mislabeled as anger, and the yet untested possibility of usually high and low levels of aversive states. Situational variables in large numbers influence physiological and psychological arousal. Exercise can increase both and alcohol can decrease them.

Immediate appraisal is automatic, spontaneous, and occurring without awareness. Immediate appraisal can produce either an automatic trait or situational inference depending on the situation. It includes affective, goal, and intention information. It may include anger-related affect a relation goal, and a specific intention to carry out that goal. How a person responses will be different from person to person based on their personality and state of mind at the time.

GAM may focus on a particular episode, but that doesn’t mean that the past or future is irrelevant in the matter. For example, repeatedly exposing children to violence on TV or even poor parenting will result in them becoming aggressive adults. Resulting in how they interact with others and the types of people who will interact with them.

Opportunity is a very important suggestion for aggression. Some situations provide perfect opportunities to aggress. There has been research that has proven that most people don’t commit extreme acts of violence even if there was little or no chance of being discovered or punished. There are however people with normal moral standards sometimes act disproving of people by torture, committing murder, and even destruction to a particular group. People can disengage from their normal moral standards because of what they feel is moral justification or by being deprived of human qualities.

People need more than food and shelter to survive, they need social acceptance. Social needs include self-esteem, social esteem, the belief that the world is a just and fair place, belonging to a group, and group esteem. These needs, if threatened can often become a source of aggressive behavior.

The traditional assumption, that anger causes aggression. New research leads beliefs that anger plays several casual roles in aggression. Anger provides justification for aggressive actions and sometimes interferes with the higher-level cognitive processes; which in turn reduces inhibitions against aggressing. Anger allows a person to maintain an aggressive intention over time. Anger is also used as an information cue. Anger primes aggressive thoughts, scripts, and associated expressive-motor behaviors. Finally, anger energizes behavior by increasing arousal levels.

GAM completely accounts for the fact that any attempts to change overly aggressive people becomes more and more unsuccessful as they get older. As the person gets older and has more life experiences, they turn to more rehearsed and accessible knowledge structures. This makes them more difficult to change. It also accounts for treatment programs that tend not to work mainly because there are so many ways that maladaptive knowledge structures can be learned. The most successful interventions are those that address multiple sources of maladaptive learning environments at a young age.

Treatment attempts of violent adults usually done in prison programs mostly have failed. Treatments that are for violent juvenile offenders have a higher success rate and include “boot camps”, individual therapy, “scared strait” programs and group therapy. There however, has been little evidence of sustained success with any of these approaches. One problem is they don’t approach a whole range of the factors that contribute to the development of violent behavior. There is evidence however, that treatment can have a beneficial impact on the violent juveniles.

One of the approaches that appear to be promising is multisystematic therapy, which is a family-based approach, which approaches the major factors of violent behavior. This includes school, work, biological, peer-group, family and neighborhood factors which are in turn examined. The chances to observe and commit any further violent offences are restricted and prosocial behavior is rewarded. The long-term success rate and cost/benefit ratio of this approach have greatly outdone other attempts at treating violent individuals.

As a result of all this, GAM provides a useful framework for understanding what is already known about human aggression. It provides a structure that holds together the current domain-specific aggression theories. It organizes recent theories of the development of the aggressive personality. It suggests important directions for future research designed to fill the gaps. It provides direction for interventions designed to reduce unnecessary human aggression. They believe that the theory-based aggression research can reduce the level of violence in society, increasing our understanding of the causes of aggression and violence.

I agree with this research to an extent. I feel that you have to understand what causes aggression and the different types of it to ever hope of treating it. I also feel that the person in question has to at some point want to be treated or how can there be any hope of it working. I feel that this is a good start, but there is so much more to learn.

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